Changes

Phonetics (in Modern Linguistics) is a rough translation of Śikṣā. The latter deals with many issues related to pronunciation unlike the former word where only a few linguistic aspects are discussed. The term Śikṣā literally means – the one that trains pronunciation etc. of letters.  

Phonetics (in Modern Linguistics) is a rough translation of Śikṣā. The latter deals with many issues related to pronunciation unlike the former word where only a few linguistic aspects are discussed. The term Śikṣā literally means – the one that trains pronunciation etc. of letters.  

== Evolution of Linguistic Concepts ==

== Evolution of Linguistic Concepts ==

=== अक्षरम् ॥ Akshara (Syllable) ===

=== अक्षरम् ॥ Akshara (Syllable) ===

Among the old preformal conceptions of language and linguistic units, are the notions of chandas or meters, the metrical feet, words and syllables, along with very few technical terms found in later day texts. Rigveda refers to different meters by name, e.g. Gayatri, Brhati, and Trishtubh. Vaidika chandas has two prominent features viz., fixed number of पद-s (padas or metrical foot) in a mantra/shloka and fixed number of syllables in a pada. The word, पद (pada), occasionally also meant a word or a name. However, in later day classical samskrit, the word पद (pada) referred primarily to words, and a new, though related, term, पाद (paada), began to be used for metrical foot.

Among the old preformal conceptions of language and linguistic units, are the notions of [[Chandas (छन्दस्)|chandas]] or meters, the metrical feet, words and syllables, along with very few technical terms found in later day texts. Rigveda refers to different meters by name, e.g. Gayatri, Brhati, and Trishtubh. Vaidika chandas has two prominent features viz., fixed number of पद-s (padas or metrical foot) in a mantra/shloka and fixed number of syllables in a pada. The word, पद (pada), occasionally also meant a word or a name. However, in later day classical samskrit, the word पद (pada) referred primarily to words, and a new, though related, term, पाद (paada), began to be used for metrical foot.

Another important term, अक्षरम् (akshara) or syllable is also found widely used in the vedas. Presently, the widely used common term 'Varna' is not found in the vedic literature. In the Rigveda, it appears that a syllable formed the very basic unit or measure of language, and recognizing the divine nature of language, everything ultimately rests in the divine अक्षरम् (akshara). Rigveda, is crucial to our understanding of the earliest notions of "linguistic units":<blockquote>गा॒य॒त्रेण॒ प्रति॑ मिमीते अ॒र्कम॒र्केण॒ साम॒ त्रैष्टु॑भेन वा॒कम् । वा॒केन॑ वा॒कं द्वि॒पदा॒ चतु॑ष्पदा॒ ऽक्षरे॑ण मिमते स॒प्त वाणी॑: ॥२४॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.164.24)<ref>Rig Veda ([http://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhitas-mandal-01-sukta-164/ Mandala 1])</ref></blockquote>Summary: With the Gayatri foot, he (the vedic seer) measures the Arka, with the Arka the Saman, with the Trishtubh foot the Vaka; with the two-foot and four-foot Vaka the recitation; with the syllable the seven voices.  

Another important term, अक्षरम् (akshara) or syllable is also found widely used in the vedas. Presently, the widely used common term 'Varna' is not found in the vedic literature. In the Rigveda, it appears that a syllable formed the very basic unit or measure of language, and recognizing the divine nature of language, everything ultimately rests in the divine अक्षरम् (akshara). Rigveda, is crucial to our understanding of the earliest notions of "linguistic units":<blockquote>गा॒य॒त्रेण॒ प्रति॑ मिमीते अ॒र्कम॒र्केण॒ साम॒ त्रैष्टु॑भेन वा॒कम् । वा॒केन॑ वा॒कं द्वि॒पदा॒ चतु॑ष्पदा॒ ऽक्षरे॑ण मिमते स॒प्त वाणी॑: ॥२४॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.164.24)<ref>Rig Veda ([http://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhitas-mandal-01-sukta-164/ Mandala 1])</ref></blockquote>Summary: With the Gayatri foot, he (the vedic seer) measures the Arka, with the Arka the Saman, with the Trishtubh foot the Vaka; with the two-foot and four-foot Vaka the recitation; with the syllable the seven voices.  

=== वर्णः ॥ Varna (Individual Sound) ===

=== वर्णः ॥ Varna (Individual Sound) ===

As we move to the Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad texts, we find a gradual unfolding of conceptual categories. A full spectrum of linguistic units is seen in the Samkhaayna Brahmana (26.5) where we find an important conversation between Jatukarnya and Aliikayu describing the constituents of speech units.<ref name=":5" /><blockquote>''Him he asked, ‘If the performer himself should note a flaw passed over or another should call attention to it, how is that flaw to be made flawless? By repetition of the Mantra or by an oblation?’ ‘The Mantra should be recited again,’ Jatukarnya said. Him Aliikayu again asked, ‘Should one recite in full the Shastra or recitation or Nigada or offering verse or whatever else it be?’ ‘So much as is erroneous only need be repeated, a verse (rcham), or half verse (ardharcam), or quarter verse (paadam), or word (padam), or individual sound (varnam),’ Jatukarnya replied.”''</blockquote>Not only do we find there a clear distinction between a paada “metrical foot” and pada “word”, we also find one of the early uses of the term varna to refer to “sound”, in contrast with the older term akshara “syllable”. Thus, there is clear conceptual and terminological progress from metrical feet to words, and from syllables to individual sounds. It is significant to note the emergence of the term varna used in the sense of sounds, a term which only refers to colors and social classes in the earlier literature.

As we move to the [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyaka]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishad]] texts, we find a gradual unfolding of conceptual categories. A full spectrum of linguistic units is seen in the Samkhaayna Brahmana (26.5) where we find an important conversation between Jatukarnya and Aliikayu describing the constituents of speech units.<ref name=":5" /><blockquote>''Him he asked, ‘If the performer himself should note a flaw passed over or another should call attention to it, how is that flaw to be made flawless? By repetition of the Mantra or by an oblation?’ ‘The Mantra should be recited again,’ Jatukarnya said. Him Aliikayu again asked, ‘Should one recite in full the Shastra or recitation or Nigada or offering verse or whatever else it be?’ ‘So much as is erroneous only need be repeated, a verse (rcham), or half verse (ardharcam), or quarter verse (paadam), or word (padam), or individual sound (varnam),’ Jatukarnya replied.”''</blockquote>Not only do we find there a clear distinction between a paada “metrical foot” and pada “word”, we also find one of the early uses of the term varna to refer to “sound”, in contrast with the older term akshara “syllable”. Thus, there is clear conceptual and terminological progress from metrical feet to words, and from syllables to individual sounds. It is significant to note the emergence of the term "varna" used in the sense of sounds, a term which only refers to colors and social classes in the earlier literature.

=== स्वर व्यञ्जनाश्च ॥ Svara and Vyanjana (Vowels and Consonants) ===

=== स्वर व्यञ्जनाश्च ॥ Svara and Vyanjana (Vowels and Consonants) ===

Another class of pronunciation treatises is referred to by the general term '''Śikṣā''' (referred to as '''Shiksha''') meaning training in general, and pronunciation and recitational training in particular. The word Śikṣā appears in the Taittriya Upanishad involving detailed explanation of the training in pronunciation aspects. As a class of texts, over a hundred these Śikṣā texts have been produced by different authorities which are relatively modern to the Pratisakhyas. The most well known among these texts is the Paniniya Shiksa attributed by the tradition to the famous Sanskrit grammarian Panini. Other important Shikshas include the Vyasa, Apisali, Yajnavalkya, and the Narada shiksha. A few of these texts, such as the Paniniya shiksha and the Apisali siksha, are non-sectarian in the sense that they do not attach themselves to a particular Vedic school, and deal with the Sanskrit language in a generic way. However, most of these texts are sectarian. They are attached to particular Vedic schools, and deal with the recitation of particular Vedic texts. They often provide the most minute details of the recitational practice.<ref name=":5" />

Another class of pronunciation treatises is referred to by the general term '''Śikṣā''' (referred to as '''Shiksha''') meaning training in general, and pronunciation and recitational training in particular. The word Śikṣā appears in the Taittriya Upanishad involving detailed explanation of the training in pronunciation aspects. As a class of texts, over a hundred these Śikṣā texts have been produced by different authorities which are relatively modern to the Pratisakhyas. The most well known among these texts is the Paniniya Shiksa attributed by the tradition to the famous Sanskrit grammarian Panini. Other important Shikshas include the Vyasa, Apisali, Yajnavalkya, and the Narada shiksha. A few of these texts, such as the Paniniya shiksha and the Apisali siksha, are non-sectarian in the sense that they do not attach themselves to a particular Vedic school, and deal with the Sanskrit language in a generic way. However, most of these texts are sectarian. They are attached to particular Vedic schools, and deal with the recitation of particular Vedic texts. They often provide the most minute details of the recitational practice.<ref name=":5" />

==वर्णोत्पत्तिः ॥ Varnotpatti==

==वर्णोत्पत्तिः ॥ Varnotpatti==

Varnas are the fundamental speech units and they are produced (वर्णोत्पत्तिः) by a complex process involving the antaranga or inner mind combined with air and articulating organs. Panini shiksha and other texts describe the physiological process by which [[Origin and Propagation of Sound (शब्दोत्पत्तिः प्रसारश्च)|sound (or varnas here) is produced]] in the human being. According to Paniniya Shiksha,  <blockquote>वर्णाञ्जनयते तेषां विभागः पञ्चधा स्मृतः॥9॥ स्वरतः कालतः स्थानात्प्रयत्नानुप्रदानतः। इति वर्णविदः प्राहुर्निपुणं तन्निबोधत ॥10 (Pani. Shik<ref name=":0">Paniniya Shiksha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Full Text])</ref>) </blockquote>Varnas or Speech sounds are generated on the basis of the five following ways<ref name=":1" />  

Varnas are the fundamental speech units and they are produced (वर्णोत्पत्तिः) by a complex process involving the antaranga or inner mind combined with air and articulating organs. Panini shiksha and other texts describe the physiological process by which [[Origin and Propagation of Sound (शब्दोत्पत्तिः प्रसारश्च)|sound (or varnas here) is produced]] in the human being. According to Paniniya Shiksha,  <blockquote>वर्णाञ्जनयते तेषां विभागः पञ्चधा स्मृतः॥9॥ स्वरतः कालतः स्थानात्प्रयत्नानुप्रदानतः। इति वर्णविदः प्राहुर्निपुणं तन्निबोधत ॥10 (Pani. Shik<ref name=":0">Paniniya Shiksha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Full Text])</ref>) </blockquote>Varnas or Speech sounds are generated in five following ways<ref name=":1" />  

# स्वरः ॥ Svara (Accent or Pitch) are three in number: udātta, anudātta, and Svarita.

# स्वरः ॥ Svara (Accent or Pitch) are three in number: udātta, anudātta, and Svarita.

# मात्रा ॥ Matra (Quantity or time of utterance) are three in number:  ह्रस्व (hrasva = short), दीर्घ (dīrgha = long) and प्लुत (pluta = longer)

# मात्रा ॥ Matra (Quantity or time of utterance) are three in number:  ह्रस्व (hrasva = short), दीर्घ (dīrgha = long) and प्लुत (pluta = longer)

# प्रयत्नः ॥ Prayatna (Effort):   

# प्रयत्नः ॥ Prayatna (Effort):   

# अनुप्रदानम् ॥ Anupradana (Sound material)

# अनुप्रदानम् ॥ Anupradana (Sound material)

=== स्वरः ॥ Accent or Pitch ===

=== स्वरः ॥ Accent or Pitch ===

While difference in accent causes a difference in meaning in the vedic literature, accent is not given importance in classical samskrit literature. The अचः (acaḥ = vowels) are called स्वराः (svarāḥ) as they shine with 'svara' and being the 'dharma', udātta etc. are also called svarāḥ. Panini in his famous Ashtadhyayi defines svaras as follows<ref name=":1">Vedangas - Siksha by Prof. Korada Subrahmanyam</ref><blockquote>उच्चैरुदात्तः ॥ uccairudāttaḥ ॥ १-२-२९ ॥ If the vowel is pronounced in the upper parts, it is called udātta.</blockquote><blockquote>नीचैरनुदात्तः ॥ nīcairanudāttaḥ ॥ १-२-३0 ॥ If the vowel is pronounced in the lower parts, it is called anudātta.</blockquote><blockquote>समाहारः स्वरितः ॥ samāhāraḥ svaritaḥ ॥ १-२-३१ ॥ Svarita is the combination of udātta and anudātta. (Asht. 1.2.29-31)<ref name=":2">Maharshi Panini's Ashtadhyayi ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%80_%E0%A5%A7#%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 1 Pada 2])</ref></blockquote>

Svaras are of three types - Udaatta, Anudatta, Svarita. As seen above the Svaras or Vowels are fundamental syllables while here the Svara refers to accent or pitch. While difference in accent causes a difference in meaning in the vedic literature, accent is not given importance in classical samskrit literature. The अचः (acaḥ = vowels) are called स्वराः (svarāḥ) as they shine with 'svara' and being the 'dharma', udātta etc. are also called svarāḥ. Panini in his famous Ashtadhyayi defines svaras as follows<ref name=":1">Vedangas - Siksha by Prof. Korada Subrahmanyam</ref><blockquote>उच्चैरुदात्तः ॥ uccairudāttaḥ ॥ १-२-२९ ॥ If the vowel is pronounced in the upper parts, it is called udātta.</blockquote><blockquote>नीचैरनुदात्तः ॥ nīcairanudāttaḥ ॥ १-२-३0 ॥ If the vowel is pronounced in the lower parts, it is called anudātta.</blockquote><blockquote>समाहारः स्वरितः ॥ samāhāraḥ svaritaḥ ॥ १-२-३१ ॥ Svarita is the combination of udātta and anudātta. (Asht. 1.2.29-31)<ref name=":2">Maharshi Panini's Ashtadhyayi ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%80_%E0%A5%A7#%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 1 Pada 2])</ref></blockquote>

=== मात्रा ॥ Matra ===

=== मात्रा ॥ Matra ===

* '''Vyanjana''' (हल्) or Consonants which are 33 in number

* '''Vyanjana''' (हल्) or Consonants which are 33 in number

''Svara aksharas'' are also known as ''prana akshara''; i.e., they are the main sounds in speech, without which speech is not possible.  The term Svara here refers to the Varna and is not to be confused with accent or pitch which is also called Svara. ''Vyanjana'', i.e., consonants are incomplete and associate with vowels for pronunciation. They are also known as ''Prani akshara''; that is, they are like a body to which life (''svara'') is added. They include the rest of the three types apart from Svaras varnas namely '''Sparsa''' (mentioned as Stop), '''Antastha''' and '''Ushmana'''.

''Svara aksharas'' are also known as ''prana akshara''; i.e., they are the main sounds in speech, without which speech is not possible.  The term Svara here refers to the Varna and is not to be confused with accent or pitch which is also called Svara. ''Vyanjana'', i.e., consonants are incomplete and associate with vowels for pronunciation. They are also known as ''Prani akshara''; that is, they are like a body to which life (''svara'') is added. They include the rest of the three types apart from Svaras varnas namely '''Sparsa''' (mentioned as Stop), '''Antastha''' and '''Ushmana'''.

A vowel is pronounced in 18 ways (3×2×3), based on matra (time), its organ, and svara (accent) of pronunciation. However, there are some modifications. We get 18 ways of pronunciation for अ इ उ ऋ, ऌ  has no Dirgha (2x2x3 = 12 ways), ए ओ ऐ औ has no Hrasva, so we get (2x2x3) twelve ways.  

A vowel is pronounced in 18 ways (3×2×3), based on matra (time), its organ, and svara (accent) of pronunciation. However, there are some modifications. We get 18 ways of pronunciation for अ इ उ ऋ, ऌ  has no Dirgha (2x2x3 = 12 ways), ए ओ ऐ औ has no Hrasva, so we get (2x2x3) twelve ways.  

* '''Hrasva''': Short vowel, Eka-mātra

* '''Hrasva''': Short vowel, Eka-mātra

* '''Dīrgha''': Long vowel, Dvi-mātra

* '''Dīrgha''': Long vowel, Dvi-mātra

* : Prolonged vowel, Tri-mātra

* '''Plutha''': Prolonged vowel, Tri-mātra

|-

|-

!Organ involved in pronunciation

!Organ involved in pronunciation

== वेदपाठकगुणाः ॥ Qualities of a Vedapathaka ==

== वेदपाठकगुणाः ॥ Qualities of a Vedapathaka ==

In the recitation of vedamantras, just as svara or varna doshas leading to disastrous consequences are described these granthas also explain the beneficial effects. In all shikshas it has been emphasized that proper, accurate, accented pronunciation of the veda mantras must be adhered to obtain the desired results as explained by Vyasa shiksha<ref name=":4">P. N. Pattabhirama Sastri. (1976) ''Vyasa Siksha, With Vedataijas Commentary of Sri. Suryanarain Suravadhani and Sarva Lakshanmanjari Sangraha of Sri. Raja Ganapati.'' Varanasi: Veda Mimamsa Research Center (Page 39-45)</ref><blockquote>सुव्यक्तस्सुस्वरो धैर्यं तच्चित्तत्वं चतुर्गुणाः । एतद्युक्तः पठेद्वेदं स वेदफलमश्नुते ॥ (Vyas. Shik. 503)</blockquote>Four basic requisites for obtaining the desired results of recitation of vedamantras are enumerated: सुव्यक्तम् (suvyaktam) i.e., recitation according to rules of ucchaarana, सुस्वरः (susvara) i.e., pronouncing according to the rules of svara in a nasal free voice, धैर्यं (dhairyam) i.e., giving undivided attention pronouncing with confidence (avoiding unshaky voice), तच्चित्तत्वं (tacchitatvam) i.e., (student) being completely absorbed in the vedic recitation.

In the recitation of vedamantras, just as svara or varna doshas leading to disastrous consequences are described these granthas also explain the beneficial effects. In all shikshas it has been emphasized that proper, accurate, accented pronunciation of the veda mantras must be adhered to obtain the desired results.  Vyasa shiksha describes four basic qualities of a Vedapathaka<ref name=":4">P. N. Pattabhirama Sastri. (1976) ''Vyasa Siksha, With Vedataijas Commentary of Sri. Suryanarain Suravadhani and Sarva Lakshanmanjari Sangraha of Sri. Raja Ganapati.'' Varanasi: Veda Mimamsa Research Center (Page 39-45)</ref><blockquote>सुव्यक्तस्सुस्वरो धैर्यं तच्चित्तत्वं चतुर्गुणाः । एतद्युक्तः पठेद्वेदं स वेदफलमश्नुते ॥ (Vyas. Shik. 503)</blockquote>Four basic requisites for obtaining the desired results of recitation of vedamantras are enumerated: सुव्यक्तम् (suvyaktam) i.e., recitation according to rules of ucchaarana, सुस्वरः (susvara) i.e., pronouncing according to the rules of svara in a nasal free voice, धैर्यं (dhairyam) i.e., giving undivided attention pronouncing with confidence (avoiding shaky voice), तच्चित्तत्वं (tacchitatvam) i.e., (student) being completely absorbed in the vedic recitation.

Acharyas are cautioned to watch for the above mentioned four qualities in students both in adequate proportion amount and combination. The Acharya himself must have the ability to distinguish the svara and varna doshas, thus should have exceptional hearing abilities to weed out the errors and correct them in a student. Probably because of this requirement the study is referred to as tapasya, always requiring the concentration of mind and well concerted assiduous efforts in listening as well as in erudition.<blockquote>ध्वनिस्स्थानञ्च करणं प्रयत्नः कालता स्वरः। देवताजातिरेतैश्च वर्णा ज्ञेया विचक्षणैः ॥</blockquote><blockquote>पदक्रमविशेषज्ञो वर्णक्रमविचक्षणः । स्वरमात्राविभाज्ञो गच्छेदाचार्यसम्पदम् ॥ (Vyas. Shik. 511-512)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>One who understands and discerns the dhvani (sound) sthanas (place of articulation), karanas (articulators), prayatnas (efforts), kalata (notion of time), devatas associated with varnas, the grouping (jati), is an expert in padakrama and varnakrama and knows the svaras and matras - such a person attains the position of Acharya.

Acharyas are cautioned to watch for the above mentioned four qualities in students both in adequate proportion amount and combination. The Acharya himself must have the ability to distinguish the svara and varna doshas, thus should have exceptional hearing abilities to weed out the errors and correct them in a student. Probably because of this requirement the study is referred to as tapasya, always requiring the concentration of mind and well concerted assiduous efforts in listening as well as in erudition.<blockquote>ध्वनिस्स्थानञ्च करणं प्रयत्नः कालता स्वरः। देवताजातिरेतैश्च वर्णा ज्ञेया विचक्षणैः ॥</blockquote><blockquote>पदक्रमविशेषज्ञो वर्णक्रमविचक्षणः । स्वरमात्राविभाज्ञो गच्छेदाचार्यसम्पदम् ॥ (Vyas. Shik. 511-512)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>One who understands and discerns the dhvani (sound) sthanas (place of articulation), karanas (articulators), prayatnas (efforts), kalata (notion of time), devatas associated with varnas, the grouping (jati), is an expert in padakrama and varnakrama and knows the svaras and matras - such a person attains the position of Acharya.

==प्रातिशाख्यानां शिक्षास्वरूपता ॥ Pratishakhyas related to Shiksha==

==प्रातिशाख्यानां शिक्षास्वरूपता ॥ Pratishakhyas related to Shiksha==

Pratisakhyas are the oldest Siksa textbooks intimately connected to shakas of the four Vedas. Although the specific in subject matter their contribution in protecting the vedic form, is as invaluable as that of Vyakarana and Siksha texts. Their textual content differs from Vyakarana and Shiksha granthas in that they deal exclusively with the peculiarities of that particular veda shaka in the areas of svaras, sandhis and other pronunciation aspects and are thus as old as the Vedas themselves.<ref name=":3" /> Later Siksa texts are systematic, and often titled with suffix "Siksa", such as the Naradiya-Siksa, Vyasa-Siksa, Pari-Siksa and Sarvasammata-Siksa.

Pratisakhyas are the oldest Siksa textbooks intimately connected to shakas of [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]]. Although the specific in subject matter their contribution in protecting the vedic form, is as invaluable as that of Vyakarana and Siksha texts. Their textual content differs from Vyakarana and Shiksha granthas in that they deal exclusively with the peculiarities of that particular veda shaka in the areas of svaras, sandhis and other pronunciation aspects and are thus as old as the Vedas themselves.<ref name=":3" /> Later Siksa texts are systematic, and often titled with suffix "Siksa", such as the Naradiya-Siksa, Vyasa-Siksa, Pari-Siksa and Sarvasammata-Siksa.

The Pratishakhyas, which evolved from the more ancient Vedic padapathas, deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated. There are separate Pratishakhyas for each Veda and they are composed either in sutra or shloka formats. They complement the books called Shiksha written by various authorities. Several Pratishakhyas have survived into the modern era:<ref name=":122">Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1997) ''Samskrit Vangmay ka Brhad Itihas, Dvitiya Khand - Vedang.'' Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Samskrit Sansthan (Pages 1-55)</ref>

The Pratishakhyas, which evolved from the more ancient Vedic padapathas, deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated. There are separate Pratishakhyas for each Veda and they are composed either in sutra or shloka formats. They complement the books called Shiksha written by various authorities. Several Pratishakhyas have survived into the modern era:<ref name=":122">Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1997) ''Samskrit Vangmay ka Brhad Itihas, Dvitiya Khand - Vedang.'' Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Samskrit Sansthan (Pages 1-55)</ref>

* Yajnavalkya  

* Yajnavalkya  

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