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=== Introduction ===

 

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.   

Temples are truly the essence of Sanatana Dharma. The focus of Vaidika Sanatana Dharma was the Yajna Samstha but gradually the place of Yajna was taken over by the institutions of temples and allied rituals like puja, japa and vrata. The antiquity of temples as places of worship dates back at least to the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE) which coincides with the Second Urbanization in India. A few scholars assert that the form of Sanatana Dharma as practiced since the beginning of the Common Era revolves around the institution of temples. The archaeological evidences for temples date back to the 3rd century BCE but this does not negate the fact that temples were being constructed in the land of Bharata at least since the 6th century BCE. There are copious references to temples in literary as well as epigraphical sources (inscriptions). In this article we will be discussing some major literary references to temples.   

=== Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita (वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत संहिता ) ===

== वराहमिहिरस्य बृहत्संहिता  || Varahamihira 's Brihatsamhita ==

Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE.  Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit.  (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys  and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:   

Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita is the oldest available text which includes details about the construction of temples in its fifty-sixth adhyaya titled Prasadalakshanadhyayah. and is approximately dated to the 5th-6th centuries CE.  Varahamihira states in the opening shloka of this adhyaya that after one constructs water tanks (salila) and lays out gardens (arama) one must undertake the task of building a temple to augment one 's own glory and religious merit.  (Brihat Samhita 56.1). A person who aspires to attain the lokas through Ishta and Purta Dharmas must engage himself in the erection of temples so that he may procure the merits of both (Brihat Samhita 56.2). Varahamihira lays down that the site of the proposed temple must be divided into sixty-four squares and its middle door must be located in one of the cardinal quarters (Brihat Samhita 56.10). Succeeding shlokas of the text furnish details about the dimensions of the various constituent parts of the temple and their relative proportions. The text also recommends that temple doors must have three, five, seven and nine frames and these numbers confer auspiciousness. The text further lays down that two door keepers must be carved near the door and their size must be 1/4th of the door post.The remaining space must be adorned with auspicious birds, Bilva trees, Svastikas, pitchers, couples, leaves, creepers and flowers and Bhagavan Shiva 's ganas. Many of these motifs are clearly visible in temples from the Gupta Period onward. These motifs can also be seen in rock-cut cave temples dating to the same period (the Gupta Period falls approximately between the 4th c. CE to the 6th c. CE) (Brihat Samhita 56.11-16). The Brihat Samhita presents an inventory of twenty different kinds of temple structures. These twenty types of temples differ from each other in regard to dimensions, arrangements and plan. Their classification is based on number of storeys  and shikharas, divergent dimensions and plan and position of doors etc.The details of the various temples are as follows:   

==== 1 Meru ====

* '''The Meru Temple''' is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).

This is the loftiest temple described in the Brihat Samhita. It rises to a height of twelve storeys and is hexagonal in its plan. It had variegated windows and doors in the four cardinal directions. Its width was thirty two cubits (one cubit is equal to eighteen inches).  

* The '''Mandara''' type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikhara.  

 

* The '''Kailasa''' kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.

* The '''Vimana Chhanda''' is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits.  

The Mandara type of a temple is hexagonal with a width of thirty cubits and with a height of ten storeys and shikharas.

* The '''Nandana''' possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits.  

 

* '''Samudga''' is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara..  

==== 3. Kailasa ====

* The '''Padma''' temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga.  

The Kailasa kind of a temple shares similarities with the Mandara with a height of eight storeys and its width being twenty eight cubits.  

* The shape of the '''Garuda''' temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.

 

* The '''Nandivardhana''' is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas.  

==== 4. The Vimana Chhanda ====

This temple is equipped with latticed windows and is as broad as twenty one cubits  

 

==== 5. Nandana ====

The Nandana possesses a height of six storeys with sixteen cupolas and a width of thirty-two cubits.  

 

Samudga is a temple with a circular plan and measures eight cubits in width. It has a single storey and only one shikhara.  

 

==== 7. Padma ====

This temple is said to resemble an eight-petalled lotus. The rest of its feature are the same as Samudga.  

 

The shape of this temple is like that of Garuda or eagle with a tail and wings.  

 

The Nandivardhana is similar to a Garuda Temple but the wings and tail are absent. They both have a width of twenty-four cubits and rise up to seven storeys. Further they are both embellished with twenty cupolas.  

==== 10.  Kunjara ====

== विष्णुधर्मोत्तरपुराणम् || Vishnudharmottara Purana ==

The Kunjara is a temple is similar to a Kunjara's or an elephant's back. It has one storey and is equipped with three chandrashalas and measures sixteen cubits. It is apsidal in form with a barrel-vaulted roof. We find many examples of the Kunjara type of temples. Some of the notable ones are the Trivikrama Temple at Ter (Maharashtra), the Nakula Sahadeva Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Pallavas, Tamil Nadu) and the Durg Temple at Aihole (Chalukyas, Karnataka).  

The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana affiliated to the Vishnu Purana . Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are

==== 11. Guharaja ====

The Guharaja measures, like the Kunjara sixteen cubits and possesses a single storey and three chandrashalas. It is shaped like a cave.  

* Rajaraja and many more.  These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and  Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.<ref>Shah, Priyabala (1990) ''Shri Vishnudharmottara''. Ahmedabad: The New Order Book Co </ref>

==== 12. Vrisha ====

== मत्स्यपुराणम् || Matsya Purana ==

* The Matsya Purana is counted among the oldest Puranas and is chiefly a Vaishnava Purana. It contains the details regarding the construction of lakes, wells, gardens and temples (devamandira). According to this text, the temple plan has to be divided into 16 parts. Due consideration was to be given to the central four parts and the remaining 12 parts and the Prasada was conceptualized. In this text one finds details pertaining to the proportions of walls, sikhara, pradaksinapatha, mandapa, mukhamandapa and garbhagrha. Almost all Prasadas in general have these components. The proportions of these temple components are interrelated with each other. The Matsya Purana furnishes various names of Prasadas which are as follows

The Hamsa was shaped like a swan with a beak, wings and tail and has one storey, one turret and and a width of 16 cubits.

* Kumbha (shaped like a kumbha, 9 bhumis)

* Simha (shape of a lion)

* Samudgaka (5 amalakas, 16 sided , rear chandrashalas, 2 bhumis)

==== 14. Ghata ====

Shri Vrukshaka (similar to Padmaka). The text also describes the building of Temple Toranas which were to be constructed with stone, bricks or wood. Toranas were also used in the Buddhist and Jaina architecture as well as the gateways to cities. Heights of the different prasadas in hastas have been given in this particular text. The text also puts across the details of various mandapas of prasadas are given. Some of these mandapas are

The Ghata temple is shaped like a Kalasha. with a width of eight cubits and one storey and a single turret.  

The Sarvatobhadra temple has four doors and multiple shikharas. It is endowed with numerous chandrashalas with a breadth of twenty six cubits and a height rising up to five storeys or bhumis.  

* Subhadra etc.<ref>Matsya Purana (2017) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

==== 16. Simha ====

== अग्निपुराणम् || Agni Purana ==

The Simha possesses twelve angles, is embellished with the images of lions and width of eight cubits.  

The Agni Purana believes that a temple should be constructed with a lot of precision and care. and moreover a lot of things should be kept in mind while erecting the structure of a temple.Lord Agni has described in a perfect manner the Vastu that is involved in the construction of a temple. Adhyaya ninety three of the Purana gives an account of the temple Vastu. The plot of land on which the divine edifice will be erected should be square in shape and should be divided into sixty-four rectangular chambers. Poles of Bamboo should be driven into the four cardinal points of the ground and the strings should be laid down across the eight angular points thereof. The gods respectively occupying the two and six chambers of the ground should be jointly worshipped with the Vastudevata. At the time of worship, the preceptor should meditate upon the Vastudevata in the sacrificial fire receptacle.<ref>Agni Purana (2018) Gorakhpur: Gita Press</ref>

==== 17. Vritta ====

== समरान्गणसूत्रधार: ||  Samaranganasutradhara ==

This temple is shaped like a circle.  

This text is dated to the 11^th century CE and has been authored by Raja Bhojadeva of the Parmara Dynasty.  The Samaranganasutradhara uses the following names which are analoguous to a temple-  Deva-dhishnya  (seat), Surasthana (establishment), Chaitya (a sacred monument which is piled up like the Vedic Agni)  , Archa-griha (house of the consecrated image) , Devata Ayatana (residence) as well as  Vibudha –agara (house of God). The text narrates the details of the five Prasadas created by Brahma for the gods- Vairaja (Brahma), Kailasa (Shiva), Puhspaka (Kubera), Manika (Varuna) and Trivishtapa (Indra).  Temples were designed on the lines of these prasadas using stones and baked bricks. The Vairaja was square, Kailasa was circular, Pushpaka was square , Manika was also circular and Trvishtapa was octagonal . These five main prasadas are divided into many sub-types.  Prasadas were also considered as Jyeshtha, Madhyama and Kanishtha or Adhama.  The auspicious and inauspicious characteristics of temples have also been enumerated. The names of a great variety of Prasadas have also been listed in this viz. Prasadas like '''Meru (the principal prasada, Prasada-raja), Kailasa (Hara-priya), Sarvatobhadra, Vimancchanda, Nandana, Svastika, Muktakona, Shrivatsa, Hamsa, Rucaka, Vardhamana, Garuda, Gaja, Mrgaraja, Padma and Valabhi.''' Various kinds of prasadas have been described for different gods  like Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi, Vinayaka , Lakshmi and other deities . The various structural components and dimensions of the prasadas or vimanas have also been explained in the text. The text also furnishes details about the features of Nagara, Dravida and Bhumija Prasadas- three of the main categories of Hindu Temple Architecture.  Details pertaining to the structural components like the base and storeys of the temples as well as characteristics of the other components of these temples like the jagati (the platform on which a temple, specially a Nagara temple is built. <ref>‘Jugnu’ Srikrishna and Sharma Bhanwar Lal (2011)  Samaranganasutradhara, (Volumes I and II). Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sasnkrit Series Office.</ref>

==== 18. Chatushkona ====

== मयमतम् ||  Mayamatam  ==

This temple is shaped like quadrangle i.e. it possesses four angles.  

The Mayamata is an early medieval text on architecture and was most probably written in South India (Tamil Nadu to be precise).  This text discusses different kinds of temples The 19^th Adhyaya contains the  names for a wide number of buildings and some words can even be used for temples. Some of these words are vimana, bhavana, harmya, saudha, dhaman, niketana, prasada, sadana, sadman, geha, avasanaka, griha, nilaya, vasa, aspada, vastu, vastuka, kshetra, ayatana, vesman, mandira, dhishnyaka, pada, laya, kshaya, agara, udavasita and sthana and  according to the sages these words are all synonymous. One storeyed temples have been described as  square, circular, rectangular or elliptic, apsidal, hexagonal or octagonal and similar plans for their roofs have been prescribed.  Dimensions and proportions of different parts of the temple are also specified.  On the basis of general appearance of the temples they are given different names like Vaijayanta (circular roof and attic), shribhoga, shrivishala, svastibandha (octagonal roof), shrikara (square roof), hastiprishta (apsidal), skandakanta (hexagonal). Coming to two storeyed temples, they have given names like Svastika, Vipulasundara, Kailasa, Panchala, Vishnukanta, Sumangala, Manohara, Vrittaharmya and Kubera Kanta. In addition the three principal types of temples have been given:

==== 19. Shodashri ====

# Nagara- square or rectangular building-building which is square up to the finial is also called nagara.  

As the name itself indicates, this temple has a total of sixteen angles.

# . Dravida- hexagonal or octagonal building, which is octagonal from the attic. 

# Vesara-Apsidal one, circular from the attic  

Temple types 17-20 have a dark interior and have only one storey and cupola. Only the Chatushkona has five shikharas. 

# Sanchita (Male)-made of stones or bricks, massive from entablature to roof

# Upasanchita (Neuter) – vaulted parts in places and massive in places

=== Vishnudharmottara Purana (विष्णुधर्मोत्तर पुराणम् ) ===

      As far as three storeyed temples are concerned, names like Svastika, Vimalakrti (suitable for Shambhu), Hastiprishtha, Bhadrakoshtha (base of the building square and its attic and roof octagonal) , Vrittakuta, Sumangala and Gandhara have been used for them. Going ahead with temples with four or more storeys, they have been given appellations like Subhadraka, Shrivishala, Bhadrakoshtha, Jayavaha, Bhadrakuta, Manohara, Aavantika and Sukhavaha.<ref>Dagnes, Bruno (1994) Mayamatam: Treatise of Housing Architecture and Iconography. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre For The Arts. </ref>

The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an Upa-Purana (उप पुराणम् ) affiliated to the Vishnu Purana (विष्णु पुराणम् ). Both these texts are approximately dated to the Gupta Period (5th-6th centuries CE). The Vishnudharmottara Purana is an encyclopedic work covering a broad range of facets of Ancient Indian Culture. It unfolds as a dialogue between King Vajra of Mathura (the great grandson of Bhagavan Sri Krishna) and the Sage Markandeya. One of the most redeeming features of this text is its elaborate descriptions of Hindu Temples and Hindu Iconography. King Vajra requests Sage Markandeya to enumerate the features of temples. The Vishnudharmottara Purana lists various component parts of a temple and also provides their proportionate measurements. The temple must comprise sixty four padas or equal segments. The various types of temples mentioned in this text are Himavan, Malyavan, Shringavan, Agara, Griha, Bhavana, Shikhara, Kunjara, Gandhamadana, Subhadra, Saumya, Arunodaya, Guha, Garuda, Sarvatobhadra, Mekhala, Vriddhida, Triguna, Valabhi, Rajaraja and many more. These are considered to be the names of different kinds of Nagara (North Indian) temples. The same text also prescribes the details of the images of deities which are to be installed in a specific temple. E.g. In the Mekhala type of a temple, images of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara or Ekanmasha between Krishna and Balarama or Trilochana between Ganesha and  Skanda should be consecrated. Similarly in the same type of a temple an image or Janardana or Tavshta can also be established between the images of the sun and the moon. When the mandapas are equipped with shikharas the structures are known as Vimanas. Further, the text clearly lays down which deities are not be installed in a particular type of a temple as their installation may lead to misfortune and decline. A temple devoid of mandapas is denoted as a Devakula. The term 'Devakula' is a very ancient one and appears frequently in early inscriptions. The text also includes detailed instructions pertaining to the procurement of raw materials like wood and stone as well as the associated rituals. In addition matters like production of bricks and making of the Vajralepa have also been dealt in detail by this text. The Vishnudharmottara Purana vividly also notes the kind of land on which a temple should be built as well as the land where one must not undertake temple building activities. We also come across the temple construction process involving many rituals. The text mentions the Shilanyasa ritual which was preceded by the installation of the kumbha in the soil of the site. The Shilanyasa ritual involved the placement of baked bricks in the four directions.