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Line 9: − + − A Vedantic aspirant may be termed as a Sadhaka (साधकः) who has a goal (eg., Srimaha Vishnu, Brahman) or Sadhya (साध्यम्) and the means to attain the goal is Sadhana (साधनम्) which could include Bhakti, Jnana and Yoga margas.+ − + + + + + Line 70:
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== Sadhana: Its Place and Function ==
== Sadhana: Its Place and Function ==
The inherent division between thought and being, idea and existence, which modern psychologists recently noticed, was long before perceived by the Indian Seers, and was sought to be healed up by Sadhana. All the theories on the nature of truth except the Vedantic one fail to recognize that the slightest interval between idea and reality is an impediment to the attainment of truth.<ref name=":0" /> The idea exists because of the real, not that the real exists because of the idea. But the Vedantic argument for the existence of [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)]] is not open to any such charge. Brahman or the Absolute is not merely an idea that is supplied by reason, it is reality or "vastu" which is anubhava-gamya (realized in experience). While [[Brahmatattva (ब्रह्मतत्वम्)|Brahmatattava]] is very subtle in its nature, it is to be recognized (as applicable in this present context) as svayamprakasa and svayamvedya - self-luminous and not revealed or proved by anything else (hence exclusion method of neti-neti is used). Here the Ontological Argument takes a different turn. It is not manana nor reason that reveals Brahman; they are hopelessly inadequate for the purpose. We have the Upanishadic references of Katha and Kena Upanishads to support that Brahman is beyond the manas and speech.<ref name=":0" />
The inherent division between thought and being, idea and existence, which modern psychologists recently noticed, was long before perceived by the Indian Seers, and was sought to be healed up by Sadhana. All the theories on the nature of truth except the Vedantic one fail to recognize that the slightest interval between idea and reality is an impediment to the attainment of truth.<ref name=":0" /> The idea exists because of the real, not that the real exists because of the idea. But the Vedantic argument for the existence of [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)]] is not open to any such charge. Brahman or the Absolute is not merely an idea that is supplied by reason, it is reality or "vastu" which is anubhava-gamya (realized in experience). While [[Brahmatattva (ब्रह्मतत्वम्)|Brahmatattava]] is very subtle in its nature, it is to be recognized (as applicable in this present context) as svayamprakasa and svayamvedya - self-luminous and not revealed or proved by anything else (hence exclusion method of neti-neti is used). Here the Ontological Argument takes a different turn. It is not manana nor reason that reveals Brahman; they are hopelessly inadequate for the purpose. We have the Upanishadic references of Katha and Kena Upanishads to support that Brahman is beyond the thoughts in the manas and speech.<ref name=":0" />
The different systems of philosophy have prescribed different means for attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Karma (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), Devotion or self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection.
== व्युतपत्तिः ॥ Etymology ==
== व्युतपत्तिः ॥ Etymology ==
Derived from the root साधँ in the sense of संसिद्धौ, Sadhanam (साधनम्) is Kridanta term having the ल्युट् pratyahara.<ref name=":1">See results on [https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha/#word=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8&mode=direct ashtadhyayi.com] </ref>
Derived from the root साधँ in the sense of संसिद्धौ, Sadhanam (साधनम्) is Kridanta term having the ल्युट् pratyahara.<ref name=":1">See results on [https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha/#word=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8&mode=direct ashtadhyayi.com] </ref>
According to '''Shabdakalpadhruma''', Sadhanam is defined as साध्यते कर्म्म निष्पाद्यतेऽनेनेति साधनम् । that by which any work is achieved or attained. In general usage, Sadhanam literally means "that by which something is performed" or more precisely "a means to an end".
According to '''Shabdakalpadhruma''', Sadhanam is defined as
साध्यते कर्म्म निष्पाद्यतेऽनेनेति साधनम् । sādhyate karmma niṣpādyate'neneti sādhanam ।
That by which any work is achieved or attained. In general usage, Sadhanam literally means "that by which something is performed" or more precisely "a means to an end".
According to the '''Apte Sanskrit English Dictionary'''<ref name=":1" /> a few other meanings of Sadhana are given below.
According to the '''Apte Sanskrit English Dictionary'''<ref name=":1" /> a few other meanings of Sadhana are given below.
--25 (In law) Enforcement of the delivery of anything, or of the payment of debt, infliction of fine.
--25 (In law) Enforcement of the delivery of anything, or of the payment of debt, infliction of fine.
In the context of this article, sadhana is used in a technical sense as the means of achieving Brahmajnana, and here the discussion is about the essential characteristics that lead to the attainment of the highest spiritual experience.
In the context of this article, sadhana is used in a technical sense as the means of achieving Brahmajnana, and here the discussion is about the essential characteristics of a sadhaka (such as nitya-anitya-vastuviveka, vairagya, etc.) to be developed as a means for the attainment of the highest spiritual experience. <blockquote>ब्रह्मज्ञानसाधनन्तु नित्यानित्यवस्तुविवेकेहामुत्र- फलभोगविरागशमदमादिसम्पन्मुमुक्षुत्वम् । इति वेदान्तसारः ॥<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>Thus, though the word Sadhana has a very wide connotation and implies all kinds of means for attainment of all types of aspirations both worldly and spiritual, in this article its connotation is restricted to means for achieving spiritual perfection.
== Sadhana related to Sadhaka and the Sadhya ==
A Vedantic aspirant may be termed as a Sadhaka (साधकः) who has a goal (eg., Srimaha Vishnu, Brahman) or Sadhya (साध्यम्) and the means to attain the goal is Sadhana (साधनम्) which could include Bhakti, Jnana and Yoga margas.
=== Who has the Adhikara for Sadhana? ===
The entire humanity is meant for Sadhana as the animal world bereft of rationality is beyond its purview. The theory of evolution both ancient and modern acclaims the human being as the finest product of creation endowed richly with an enormous power of thought and deed that could be directed towards the attainment of perfection.<ref name=":2">Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 2)</ref>
Man is not a mere compound of certain elements that appears by chance at certain times and disappears at certain other times without a permanent phase. Man has been the subject of study and speculation from very early times and seers with wisdom have arrived at the fundamental truth that he is an eternal principle different and distinct from matter. This revelation of the eternality of the self is the fulcrum on which the entire superstructure of Sadhana rests. So the psychology of the Jiva has to be studied and his relationship with the Universe has to be understood. This leads us to the understanding why [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|Moksha]] (includes the Atma jnana), the Paramapurushartha, is considered the highest among the four [[Purushartha (पुरुषार्थ:)|Purusharthas]] and is a unique goal of a human being alone.<ref name=":2" />
=== A Sadhaka ===
The philosophy of Sadhana therefore centers around the Sadhaka, the aspirant human being, who is called the embodied Self (finite) or Atman in Vedantic terminology. Sadhaka is related to the Sadhya or the Universal Self (infinite) or Brahman. In Kathopanishad (1.1.20) Nachiketa questioned Yamadharmaraja only about the three problems namely<ref name=":2" />
* the Sadhya or the Universal Self
* the nature of the Sadhaka or the aspirant
* the means or Sadhana to attain the Universal Self
Seers of the past therefore urged all the aspirants to get a thorough knowledge of the five factors implied in the above three problems before taking up any Sadhana.<ref name=":2" />
# The nature of the Brahman who is to be attained.
# The nature of the individual Self (Atman) who has to attain the Brahman.
# The means of attaining the Brahman.
# The fruits of attaining the Brahman or the ''summum bonum'' (Moksha).
# The obstructions for the attainment of the Brahman.
== Sadhana in Dvaita Vedanta ==
=== The Sadhya ===
== Sadhana in Dvaita Sampradaya ==
Dvaita outlines the means, sadhana for realization of the supreme end, moksa. Sadhana is a progressive endeavour and it mobilizes all the resources of personality. Madhva assimilates into his scheme of sadhana the entire heritage of the Upanisadic thought, the bhakti literature such as the Puranas, the Agamas, and the Epics including the Bhagavad-Gita.
Dvaita outlines the means, sadhana for realization of the supreme end, moksa. Sadhana is a progressive endeavour and it mobilizes all the resources of personality. Madhva assimilates into his scheme of sadhana the entire heritage of the Upanisadic thought, the bhakti literature such as the Puranas, the Agamas, and the Epics including the Bhagavad-Gita.
The foremost and the ultimate factor that brings about man’s liberation, attainment of moksa, is the grace, prasada of Narayana. ‘Without Narayana’s prasada, moksa is not possible’ says Madhva. There are several levels of grace that confers this boon. ‘The grace that responds to karma is the lowest, that, which is in answer to disciplines such as sravana, is of the middle level, and that which rewards the precious possession of knowledge is the highest’. This prasada is an ever-existent reality. All that is required of human effort is to actuate it towards the granting of moksa. It is ultimately God Himself through His grace, which is indistinguishable from His essence because of the principle of Visesa, that effectuates the summum bonum of man, moved towards that end, by the spiritual endeavour of the aspirant.
The foremost and the ultimate factor that brings about man’s liberation, attainment of moksa, is the grace, prasada of Narayana. ‘Without Narayana’s prasada, moksa is not possible’ says Madhva. There are several levels of grace that confers this boon. ‘The grace that responds to karma is the lowest, that, which is in answer to disciplines such as sravana, is of the middle level, and that which rewards the precious possession of knowledge is the highest’. This prasada is an ever-existent reality. All that is required of human effort is to actuate it towards the granting of moksa. It is ultimately God Himself through His grace, which is indistinguishable from His essence because of the principle of Visesa, that effectuates the summum bonum of man, moved towards that end, by the spiritual endeavour of the aspirant.<ref name=":3" />
The works of grace of Narayana are manifold. The Visnu-tattvavinirnaya lays down that ‘Visnu grants knowledge to the ignorant, grants liberation to the man of knowledge, and grants ananda to the liberated individual.’ Grace is a continuously operative factor in spiritual life, and does not cease to be required even when the goal is accomplished.
The works of grace of Narayana are manifold. The Visnu-tattvavinirnaya lays down that ‘Visnu grants knowledge to the ignorant, grants liberation to the man of knowledge, and grants ananda to the liberated individual.’ Grace is a continuously operative factor in spiritual life, and does not cease to be required even when the goal is accomplished.
What brings grace to operational manifestation is bhakti of the aspirant. Dvaita tradition defines bhakti thus: ‘Mahatmya-jnana pursvastu sudrdhah sarvatodhikah; sneho bhaktriti proktahtaya muktih nacanyatha’. The two constituents of bhakti are knowledge of the greatness of God and love towards Him. This love must be steadfast and surpass in its intensity all other love including self-love. It is that height of bhakti that could invoke the necessary grace of Narayana for the purpose of moksa. There are different levels of bhakti, four levels stated in the Gita. Only the highest bhakti is what brings about the prasada for moksa.
What brings grace to operational manifestation is bhakti of the aspirant. Dvaita tradition defines bhakti thus: ‘Mahatmya-jnana pursvastu sudrdhah sarvatodhikah; sneho bhaktriti proktahtaya muktih nacanyatha’. The two constituents of bhakti are knowledge of the greatness of God and love towards Him. This love must be steadfast and surpass in its intensity all other love including self-love. It is that height of bhakti that could invoke the necessary grace of Narayana for the purpose of moksa. There are different levels of bhakti, four levels stated in the Gita. Only the highest bhakti is what brings about the prasada for moksa.<ref name=":3" />
Madhva is one of the greatest philosophers of bhakti. For him, bhakti is omnipresent, as it were, in spiritual life. His work Anuvyakhyana records thus: Bhakti generates knowledge; knowledge, in its turn, generates bhakti, which, in its turn, generates the direct perception of God. This perception generates bhakti, which brings about mukti, liberation.’ It is the first means, and the constituent of the last end itself. Jayatirtha says that ‘parama-bhakti’ is the level of bhakti that brings about the final liberating grace of God.
Madhva is one of the greatest philosophers of bhakti. For him, bhakti is omnipresent, as it were, in spiritual life. His work Anuvyakhyana records thus: Bhakti generates knowledge; knowledge, in its turn, generates bhakti, which, in its turn, generates the direct perception of God. This perception generates bhakti, which brings about mukti, liberation.’ It is the first means, and the constituent of the last end itself. Jayatirtha says that ‘parama-bhakti’ is the level of bhakti that brings about the final liberating grace of God.
This bhakti must spring from knowledge, not mere emotion. Madhva characterizes it as a particular form of knowledge ‘Jnanasya visesa’. Its character and qualitative level depend upon the knowledge on which it is founded. The highest bhakti can spring from only the highest level of knowledge. Therefore, this bhakti must ensue from the immediate, direct and perceptual or intuitive apprehension of God. Madhva calls it aparoksa-jnana. This cannot be mere meditative imagination. Madhva insists that this bhakti must exceed the imaginative immediacy as stated in Brahmasutra-bhashya. Only the love engendered by the direct communion with the object of love can have the appropriate height and intensity. Hence, aparoksa-jnana is a necessity.
This bhakti must spring from knowledge, not mere emotion. Madhva characterizes it as a particular form of knowledge ‘Jnanasya visesa’. Its character and qualitative level depend upon the knowledge on which it is founded. The highest bhakti can spring from only the highest level of knowledge. Therefore, this bhakti must ensue from the immediate, direct and perceptual or intuitive apprehension of God. Madhva calls it aparoksa-jnana. This cannot be mere meditative imagination. Madhva insists that this bhakti must exceed the imaginative immediacy as stated in Brahmasutra-bhashya. Only the love engendered by the direct communion with the object of love can have the appropriate height and intensity. Hence, aparoksa-jnana is a necessity.
The means prescribed to achieve perceptual experience of God is upasana or nididhyasana. This is meditative contemplation of God with love and longing for the vision. It paves the way for the direct experience of God through the invariable means of grace. The meditation should not be mixed with fear or animosity. It must be of the nature of ardent seeking. The intellectual understanding of God derived from revelation and philosophical investigation can be converted into direct experience only through loving meditation. Aparoksa-jnana is the final phase in the process of knowing God. To effect the transition from mediacy to immediacy, upasana is the essential means. Trivikrama Pandit explains it thus: ‘The accumulated karma, which prevents the emergence of the vision of Ananta, cannot be eliminated except through uninterrupted contemplation.’<ref>Paramahamsa, K. R. (2012) ''Dvaita Vedanta.'' Tirupati: Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams. (Page 20-23)</ref>
The means prescribed to achieve perceptual experience of God is upasana or nididhyasana. This is meditative contemplation of God with love and longing for the vision. It paves the way for the direct experience of God through the invariable means of grace. The meditation should not be mixed with fear or animosity. It must be of the nature of ardent seeking. The intellectual understanding of God derived from revelation and philosophical investigation can be converted into direct experience only through loving meditation. Aparoksa-jnana is the final phase in the process of knowing God. To effect the transition from mediacy to immediacy, upasana is the essential means. Trivikrama Pandit explains it thus: ‘The accumulated karma, which prevents the emergence of the vision of Ananta, cannot be eliminated except through uninterrupted contemplation.’<ref name=":3">Paramahamsa, K. R. (2012) ''Dvaita Vedanta.'' Tirupati: Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams. (Page 20-23)</ref>
=== Sadhana in Visishtadvaita Sampradaya ===
== References ==
== References ==
[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Yoga]]
[[Category:Yoga]]