Ancient Indian Psychology (भारतीय मनोविज्ञानम्)

Manovijnana (Samskrit: मनोविज्ञानम्) pertains to the science of the mind or of mental states and processes, and of human and animal behaviour. Broadly these aspects are studied in the modern branch of Psychology and Psychiatry. Understanding the mind, thought, actions of the sense organs and consciousness have remained as elusive subjects and beyond the reach of common understanding. Understanding the various mental processes and managing mental health has remained a major challenge to modern scientists to this day. It is time to reflect on the various siddhantas and methods used by ancient seers who made unfathomable advancements in the study of consciousness and mental processes.

The source of man's insights are twofold - exploring the wonders of the world outward and the states of the mind inward. In the Vedas, the boundless diversity of nature engages attention. In the Upanishads we return inwards to explore the depths of inner world. The interest of the seers has always been in understanding and in controlling the mental processes encountered in the inward journey. The Bharatiya way of philosophic analysis started with the reflection on the inner Self of man with the ultimate goal, of all mental training, being the attainment of Moksha. We find that the psychological and physiological disciplines developed in the Upanishads, the Yoga sutras, the Bhagavad Gita, and in the schools of Buddhism and Jainism. Practicing scholars were astonished alike at the psychosomatic views held by the great medical authorities of India, namely, Charaka and Sushruta. It has been one of the wonders in intellectual history that though there was no independent branch of study like Psychology in ancient India, the ancient thinkers had independently developed highly systematic views regarding mind and its operations, particularly with reference to mental health and well-being.

Introduction

Ancient Indian thought is not only rich in describing the metaphysical but also in psychological aspects. While there was no special discipline to study Manovijnana, loosely corresponding to the modern subject of Psychology, we find numerous valuable insights about this topic in as early as the Vedas. Each school of philosophy, medicine, aesthetics etc., developed its own theory of mind. The mind of man was looked upon as having three aspects: the sub-conscious, the conscious and the super-conscious. The psychic experiences such as telepathy and clairvoyance were considered to be neither abnormal nor miraculous. They were considered to be the powers of the mind which could be developed with effort. They were classified as siddhis, which were attained with training the mind, nevertheless were to be refrained from use. Siddhis such as clairvoyance and telepathy were looked upon as obstacles in the development of one's personality. The 'abnormal' psychic phenomena like ecstasy, trance etc were considered as the working of the 'superconscious mind'. The Yoga system in particular and other systems of thought refer to these superconscious states of the mind and how they can be deliberately induced and the pitfalls to be avoided in the process.

A few outstanding examples of well known contributions of Indian seers in the field of psychology include the following.

1. The Gayatri Mantra in Rigveda and Yajurveda
2. Shiva sankalpa sukta in Yajurveda
3. Understanding the power of the Self in Kena Upanishad
4. The four states of Consciousness in Mandukya Upanishad
5. Panchakoshas described in the Taittriya Upanishad

The Vedic thinkers were chiefly preoccupied with the aspects of consciousness, its relation to the body, sense organs, and mind to the states of consciousness, viz., waking, dreaming, sleep and above all the turiya or the fourth state. With the rise of theories of materialism (Charvaka, Lokayuta), Buddhism and Jainism, the focus shifted to attention, perception, inference and illusion. Memory, imagination, feelings and emotions, thoughts and a way to express them, their relation to the development of language were paid considerable contemplation. Apart from these dynamics of the mind, thoughts and behaviour, there was a great deal of concern regarding meditation, aesthetics, carnal pleasures and religion, all of which played a significant role in psychological processes of a human being.

The Mind and its Mysteries

The ancient seer had doubtless his share of joys and sorrows, passions and dejections, moods and urges in life. And he had the right sense to turn his attention to these, 'inner breezes' within his own heart. So it was the 'heart' (हृद्) that was involved in all these psychological experiences. In the role of poets who composed the suktas, they often spoke of

• 'the pangs of grief in the heart' (हृ॒त्सु शोकै॑... Rig. Veda. 10.103.12)
• 'holding fear in the heart' (भियं॒ दधा॑ना॒ हृद॑येषु॒... Rig. Veda. 10.84.7)
• 'praises with all the heart' (हृदामतिं... Rig. Veda. 3.26.8)

It is verily the 'heart' that is touched on when the intoxicating Soma enters the system. The heart indeed is the fountain of all 'song'. It is surely not the mere physical heart that is alluded to by the poet, but the psychological faculty characterized by 'feeling'; but of course the physical heart is the one bodily organ readily affected by intense feelings. It is different from the Manas (Mind), but its close relative.

Distinction between Hrday (हृदयम्) and Manas (मनः)

The heart is identified as the source of all involuntary, irrational and normally uncontrolled psychological processes. Fear enters, not mind, but heart (Rigveda. 10.84.7) as expressed by the poet saying, इन्द्र हृ॒दि यत्ते॑ ज॒घ्नुषो॒ भीरग॑च्छत् । "O Indra, if there arises fear in your heart at the time of killing Vrtra...." (Rigveda. 1.32.14). It is also not the mind but the heart that experiences longing, grief or pleasure. We see in the Yama Yami Samvada, the longing of Yami and accusations she throws (ब॒तो ब॑तासि यम॒ नैव ते॒ मनो॒ हृद॑यं चाविदाम ।) for the lack of affection towards her (Rigveda. 10.10).

The Vedic seer has rightly recognized an intimate connection between the heart and the mind; indeed many references point to the mind being located in the heart. However, mind has an independent consideration also. It is par excellence an instrument of reason, it symbolizes the rational faculty of man. Its function is likened to the winnowing of barley through the seive; the function being selective reception and filtration of data. Mind can be truthful, unruffled, mature, firm and sharp. It is essentially intellectual and only indirectly connected with our emotional life. Mind is even invoked to exercise restraint over the tempestuous surgings of the heart. Lovelorn Pururava implores his beloved Urvashi to return home and he asks her to 'stay with mind'. Mind is said to 'investigate and consider' into deeds. While the heart represents rather the stirred-up state of the individual, mind symbolizes the reflective aspect of mental life. Maintenance of mind contributes to life; and death is associated with the dissolution of mind.

One of the qualities of Mind is that it is volatile, turbulent, obstinate and restless, characterized by "chanchalatva", its control is as difficult as the control of wind.

चञ्चलं हि मन: कृष्ण प्रमाथि बलवद्दृढम् | तस्याहं निग्रहं मन्ये वायोरिव सुदुष्करम् || 34|| (Bhag. Gita. 6.33)

Not only was mind important in individual life, its contribution to social well-being was also recognized. The very last mantra of the Rigveda concludes with the celebrated prayer which emphasizes the psychological concord in social life:

स॒मा॒नी व॒ आकू॑तिः समा॒ना हृद॑यानि वः । स॒मा॒नम॑स्तु वो॒ मनो॒ यथा॑ व॒: सुस॒हास॑ति ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.191.4)

Meaning: May our resolutions be uniform and our hearts united; May our minds be one, that we all live well together.

Methods to Analyze Mind

Ancient thinkers adopted some methods to analyze and study the problems of the mind and behaviour. These methods were not recorded as such and are found explained in almost each discipline of philosophy.

1. Observation was found to be a very important method in the study of behaviour.
2. Introspection
3. Reasoning
4. Analysis of Anubhava or Experience
5. Analysis through questions and seeking answers

The great emphasis on dhyana, meditation, is to enable an individual to follow the path so that he can have his own experience and verify for himself. Experience and realization are the dominant features of all Indian systems of thought. The guru-shishya relationship is akin to the relationship between a psychoanalyst and his patient in some respects. This is why it can be looked upon as a form of the clinical method according to Prof. Kuppuswamy.