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== परिचयः|| Introduction ==

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Our ancient intellectuals had not only produced numerous shastras or monumental treatises on almost all branches of ज्ञान and विज्ञान (Knowledge and Science) but also envisaged a detailed and comprehensive methodology of composing theoretico-scientific treatises. While there exist a few differences in the methodology of composition of shastras and the modern day research dissertations, journal and paper presentations all kinds of scientific writings essentially have the same requisites, as recognized by scholars and researchers all over the world. In the Bharatavarsha, such intellectual efforts were known prior to Panini's composition of Ashtadhyayi, a highly evolved exposition. Many thinkers put in their efforts in enriching and refining the methodology, creating a number of devices relating to words, structures and meanings pertaining to the composition of a shastra described in their authoritative and famous texts as given below,

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Our ancient intellectuals had not only produced numerous shastras or monumental treatises on almost all branches of ज्ञान and विज्ञान (Knowledge and Science) but also envisaged a detailed and comprehensive methodology of composing theoretico-scientific treatises. While there exist a few differences in the methodology of composition of shastras and the modern day research dissertations, journal and paper presentations, all kinds of scientific writings essentially have the same requisites, as recognized by scholars and researchers all over the world. In the Bharatavarsha, such intellectual efforts were known prior to Panini's composition of Ashtadhyayi, a highly evolved exposition. Many thinkers put in their efforts in enriching and refining the methodology, creating a number of devices relating to words, structures and meanings pertaining to the composition of a shastra described in their authoritative and famous texts as given below,

*Vishnudharmottara Purana, contains discussions on sundry topics like poetics, arts, sculpture

*Panini Maharshi's Ashtadhyayi, a world famous grammar treatise

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*Vagbhata's Ashtangasangraha and Ashtangahrdayam, books on Ayurveda

*Nilamegha's Tantrayuktivichara, a medical treatise

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Apart from them Chakrapanidatta, Arunadatta, Indu were authors of commentaries which have ~~methodology~~ of importance.

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Apart from them Chakrapanidatta, Arunadatta, and Indu were authors of commentaries which have methodologies of importance.

== Methodology of Ancient Shastras ==

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Earliest instances of methodical composition of knowledge base can be seen in the Anukramanikas. They are associated with Vedic texts and are the scientific indices on the vedic mantras. Each Veda contains atleast one such index. Because of Anukramanikas the texts have been preserved and tradition continued. These indices are very systematic recording the exact number of mantras, even aksharas, such that no scope for interpolation or deletion was allowed preserving the text accurately.<ref>''The Role of Tantrayuktis in Indian Research Methodology'' by Komatineni Surendra and J.S. R. A. Prasad in Academia</ref>

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Earliest instances of methodical composition of knowledge base can be seen in the '''Anukramanikas'''. They are associated with Vedic texts and are the scientific indices on the vedic mantras. Each Veda contains atleast one such index. Because of Anukramanikas the texts have been preserved and tradition continued. These indices are very systematic recording the exact number of mantras, even aksharas, such that no scope for interpolation or deletion was allowed preserving the text accurately.<ref name=":3">''The Role of Tantrayuktis in Indian Research Methodology'' by Komatineni Surendra and J.S. R. A. Prasad in Academia</ref>

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Nyaya Shastra which is the primary source of logic for all other shastras, explains five requisite methodologies as follows:<ref>Dash, Kesab Chandra. (1992) ''Elements of Research Methodology in Sanskrit.'' Varanasi : Chaukamba Sanskrit Sansthan</ref>

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'''Nyaya Shastra''' which is the primary source of logic for all other shastras, explains five requisite methodologies, the Pancha Avayavas, as follows:<ref>Dash, Kesab Chandra. (1992) ''Elements of Research Methodology in Sanskrit.'' Varanasi : Chaukamba Sanskrit Sansthan</ref><blockquote>प्रतिज्ञाहेतूदाहरणोपनयनिगमनानि अवयवाः।।३२।।{अवयवौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.32)<ref name=":4">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>pratijñāhētūdāharaṇōpanayanigamanāni avayavāḥ ॥32॥ {avayavauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.32)</blockquote>

# प्रतिज्ञा । Pratijna is the hypothesis that needs to be evaluated

# हेतुः । Hetuhu is the proposed reasoning of the problem

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A brief introduction of each of the five given elements of composition and presentation of shastras will be undertaken in this topic.

===तन्त्रयुक्तिः॥Tantrayukti===

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[[Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः)]], an uncommonly used word, refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. There are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref> According to Kautilya's Arthashastra the following list of 32 Tantrayuktis are given<ref name=":2" />

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Tantrayukti (तन्त्रयुक्तिः), an uncommonly used word, refers to the methodical elements and devices (Yuktis) of Tantra (theory) that are involved into making of a theory, the structural aspects as well as the interpretation. There are about 36 such generally accepted tantrayuktis, though different texts propose a varying numbers of such yuktis ranging between 32 to 41.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Singh, Anuradha (2003) ''Tantra Yukti Method of Theorization in Ayurveda,'' Ancient Science of Life, Vol : XXII(3) January 2003 Pages 64-74</ref> According to Kautilya's Arthashastra the following list of 32 Tantrayuktis are given<ref name=":2" />

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 800px; font-style: normal; color: #;|* अधिकरणम् ॥ adhikaraṇam (Topic)

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* ऊह्यम् ॥ ūhyam (What is understood)}}Again a word of wide import, Tantra is used synonymously with Ayurveda, a branch of Veda, education, aphorism, knowledge, shastra and definition. Tantra is referred as a synonym for Shastra in the present context means a 'theory' is which holds the various aspects of a subject, into which are interwoven different thoughts, objectives, observations and proposals covering the vast expanse of the subject. Thus it means a device or a method to systematically compose a text (or a shastra) to convey the intended ideas clearly.<ref name=":2" />

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While almost all the above mentioned texts discussed tantrayukti, Arunadatta, the commentator of Vagbhata's Ashtangahrdayam, has dealt with explanation for a large number of devices other than the tantrayuktis.

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Primitive application of Tantrayuktis is seen in the historical grammar treatise Ashtadhyayi of Maharshi Panini. Though the names of the yuktis were not mentioned their usage can be interpreted from a few aphorisms such as Atidesha, Apavarga, Upadesha seen in different sutras.<ref name=":3" />

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While almost all the above mentioned texts discussed tantrayukti, Arunadatta, the commentator of Vagbhata's Ashtangahrdayam, has dealt with explanation for a large number of devices other than the tantrayuktis. In the following sections a brief introduction of the elements of scientific writing such as Vyakhya, Kalpana, Ashraya and Tatchilya (elements other than the tantrayuktis) has been presented.

=== व्याख्या ॥ Vyakhya ===

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Vyakhya has been defined as विवरणात्मकशब्दसमूहरूपोग्रन्थविशेषः। meaning a particular composition explanatory in nature. Arunadatta in his Sarvanga Sundara commentary for Ashtangahrdayam explains thus <blockquote>व्याख्या अपि तन्त्रस्य गुणः। ताभिरपि तन्त्रमलङि्क्रयते । ताश्च पञ्चदश प्रकारा । vyākhyā api tantrasya guṇaḥ। tābhirapi tantramalaṅikrayate । tāśca pañcadaśa prakārā । </blockquote>Meaning: An explanation (or exposition or commentary) is also an attribute (a desirable property) of a scientific composition. There are 15 types of Vyakhyas which are

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Vyakhya has been defined as विवरणात्मकशब्दसमूहरूपोग्रन्थविशेषः। meaning a particular composition explanatory in nature. Arunadatta in his Sarvanga Sundara commentary for Ashtangahrdayam explains thus<ref name=":0" /> <blockquote>व्याख्या अपि तन्त्रस्य गुणः। ताभिरपि तन्त्रमलङि्क्रयते । ताश्च पञ्चदश प्रकारा । vyākhyā api tantrasya guṇaḥ। tābhirapi tantramalaṅikrayate । tāśca pañcadaśa prakārā । </blockquote>Meaning: An explanation (or exposition or commentary) is also an attribute (a desirable property) of a scientific composition. There are 15 types of Vyakhyas which are

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* पिण्डव्यख्या ॥ piṇḍavyakhyā

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=== कल्पना ॥ Kalpana ===

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Kalpana (कल्पना) means the use of a word in a secondary sense. There are seven kinds of Kalpanas, Arunadatta's explanatory text is<blockquote>तत्र प्रधानकल्पना द्विधा प्रधानस्य कल्पना प्रधानेन वा कल्पना प्रधानकल्पना । tatra pradhānakalpanā dvidhā pradhānasya kalpanā pradhānena vā kalpanā pradhānakalpanā ।</blockquote>

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Kalpana (कल्पना) means the use of a word in a secondary sense. There are seven kinds of Kalpanas, Arunadatta's explanatory text is<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>तत्र प्रधानकल्पना द्विधा प्रधानस्य कल्पना प्रधानेन वा कल्पना प्रधानकल्पना । tatra pradhānakalpanā dvidhā pradhānasya kalpanā pradhānena vā kalpanā pradhānakalpanā ।</blockquote>

* प्रधानकल्पना ॥ pradhānakalpanā - is of two kinds प्रधानस्य कल्पना and प्रधानेन कल्पना

* गुणकल्पना ॥ guṇakalpanā

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* विद्याकल्पना ॥ vidyākalpanā

* आज्ञाकल्पना ॥ ājñākalpanā

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A few examples of Kalpana are given as below.

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A few examples of Kalpana are given as below.<ref name=":0" />

# '''प्रधानेन कल्पना ॥ pradhānēna kalpanā''' is defined as प्रधानेन तु कल्पना यथा - क्षीरदधितक्र... सर्वः क्षीरवर्ग इत्युक्तः क्षीरप्राधान्यात् । pradhānena tu kalpanā yathā - kṣīradadhitakra... sarvaḥ kṣīravarga ityuktaḥ kṣīraprādhānyāt । Pradhana Kalpana is a method which is used to name a group of substances after one of them which predominantly possesses the common property. For example, there is a predominance of milk in milk, curds, buttermilk, butter, ghee etc, all these things are said to belong to the milk-group. This device follows the Nyaya ' प्रधानेन व्यपदेशा भवन्ति ' which the ancient thinkers commonly followed and is an important Kalpana.

# '''भक्ष्यकल्पना ॥ bhakṣyakalpanā''' is defined as भक्ष्यकल्पना नाम - एतत्तदमृतं साक्षात् इत्यादि । bhakṣyakalpanā nāma - etattadamr̥taṁ sākṣāt ityādi । Bhakshya Kalpana is used in the sense of utility or adoption especially important in Ayurvedic aspect. This mode of composition refers to the edible and drinkable substances to explain a scientific concept. The science of medicine is compared to अमृतम्

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=== आश्रयम् ॥ Ashraya ===

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An ashraya (आश्रयम् ) is a prop, a supporting text or concept used to arrive at the correct meaning of the subject matter. Arunadatta described 20 kinds of Ashrayas{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|

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An ashraya (आश्रयम् ) is a prop, a supporting text or concept used to arrive at the correct meaning of the subject matter. Arunadatta described 20 kinds of Ashrayas<ref name=":0" />{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|

* आदिलोपः ॥ ādilopaḥ

* मध्यलोपः ॥ madhyalopaḥ

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* उपनयः ॥ upanayaḥ

* सम्भवः ॥ sambhavaḥ

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* विभवः ॥ vibhavaḥ}}The following are a few examples of Ashraya type of compositions.

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* विभवः ॥ vibhavaḥ}}The following are a few examples of Ashraya type of compositions.<ref name=":0" />

# '''परतन्त्रप्रत्ययः ॥ paratantrapratyayaḥ''' is defined as परतन्त्रप्रत्ययो नाम, - यस्यार्थस्य प्रसिद्धितो न स्वकीयमुदाहरणं शक्यमभिधातुं नाप्यन्येभ्यो भिषक्तन्त्रेभ्यः । ततस्तस्मिन्द्वये परतन्त्रादुदाहरणं कल्प्यते । paratantrapratyayo nāma, - yasyārthasya prasiddhito na svakīyamudāharaṇaṁ śakyamabhidhātuṁ nāpyanyebhyo bhiṣaktantrebhyaḥ । tatastasmindvaye paratantrādudāharaṇaṁ kalpyate । When a shastra concept is such that it cannot be explained clearly with the help of one's treatise, or another author's treatise belonging to the same branch of learning, then the explanation is attempted using the concepts presented in a different discipline. Poetics are abundant with examples of such type of compositions.

# '''हेतुहेतुकधर्मः ॥ hetuhetukadharmaḥ''' is defined as यो हेतुहेतुकधर्मो नाम, - यो हेतुहेतुकेन धर्मो ज्ञायते । yo hetuhetukadharmo nāma, - yo hetuhetukena dharmo jñāyate । Hetu means a major or potential cause; Hetuka means a minor or incidental cause. To make an inference of the dharma or the common property after reading or hearing both the Hetu and hetuka is called the Hetuhetukadharma Ashraya. It is to be kept in mind that Hetu unfailingly brings about the effect. This concept support system helps the reader draw a line of demarcation between the major and minor causes of an effect and thus finds place as an important consideration in building the methodology of a text.

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Tatchilya is an informal use of a word in a scientific or poetic composition. In common language, people normally use words with extending, stretching or even twisted meanings, implying them to describe other situations, actions than they were originally meant for. This is the metaphorical process and in essence means transfer of meaning of a word to an entirely different context or situation. For example : we say 'In the eyes of law she was guilty and punished', here we mean in the 'view of law', since law, an inanimate thing cannot have eyes, and its action of viewing is extended to law. But such usages are very common and many times are used to enhance poetic beauty.

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This 'extension of meaning to something else' or 'a secondary use of language' is called Tatchilya. Arunadatta describes 17 kinds of Tatchilyas<blockquote>सप्तदश ताच्छील्यादीनीत्युक्तम् ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ tācchīlyam

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This 'extension of meaning to something else' or 'a secondary use of language' is called Tatchilya. Arunadatta describes 17 kinds of Tatchilyas<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>सप्तदश ताच्छील्यादीनीत्युक्तम् ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: normal;|* ताच्छील्यम् ॥ tācchīlyam

* अवयवः ॥ avayavaḥ

* विकारः॥ vikāraḥ

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* चेष्टानिमित्तता ॥ ceṣṭānimittatā

* मूलसंज्ञा ॥ mūlasaṁjñā

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* तात्स्थ्यम् ॥ tātsthyam}}A few examples of Tatchilya type of compositions are given below

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* तात्स्थ्यम् ॥ tātsthyam}}A few examples of Tatchilya type of compositions are given below<ref name=":0" />

# '''गुणनिमित्तता ॥ guṇanimittatā''' is defined as गुणनिमित्तं नाम, - यत्कस्य विभूतिः प्रशंसादिका ख्यार्यते। guṇanimittaṁ nāma, - yatkasya vibhūtiḥ praśaṁsādikā khyāryate। To name something after a praiseworthy quality in it. For example, observance of celibacy helps one achieve righteousness, fame, long life and utmost purity. Considering this if one calls Brahmacharya itself as धर्म्य, यशस्य, आयुष्य, etc one will be said to be using गुणनिमित्तता

# '''चेष्टानिमित्तता ॥ ceṣṭānimittatā''' is defined as चेष्टानिमित्तं नाम, - यस्मिन्नाममात्रं कस्यचित् क्रयया भवति भावस्य। नात्र प्रस्पन्दक्रियेष्टा । यथा दीपवदस्य ज्ञानं ज्वलति इत्युच्यते । ceṣṭānimittaṁ nāma, - yasminnāmamātraṁ kasyacit krayayā bhavati bhāvasya। nātra praspandakriyeṣṭā । yathā dīpavadasya jñānaṁ jvalati ityucyate ।When two things having some common characteristic are compared in order to praise one of the things, such a usage of words in a secondary sense is called चेष्टानिमित्तता। For example, when someone says " as knowledge shines like a lamp", it is well known that knowledge does not burn, does not have flames or not hot to touch. Yet the comparison is made taking into account one characteristic that is common both to lamp and knowledge which is prakashana the action of light.

# '''तादर्थ्यम् ॥ tādarthyam''' is defined as तादर्थ्यं नाम, - यत्प्रयोजनार्थं प्रवर्तते भवस्तेनैव व्यपदिश्यते । यथा मदनमधुकलम्बा इत्यादीनि छर्दनानि, छर्दनप्रयोजनानीत्यर्थः। tādarthyaṁ nāma, - yatprayojanārthaṁ pravartate bhavastenaiva vyapadiśyate । yathā madanamadhukalambā ityādīni chardanāni, chardanaprayojanānītyarthaḥ। To name an object after the purpose for which it is used is called तादर्थ्यम् । For instance, a मदनफल is used for vomiting (छर्दन) so it is itself called छर्दन।

# '''मूलसंज्ञा ॥ mūlasaṁjñā''' is defined as या लोकेऽन्यस्मिन्नर्थे प्रसिद्धा तन्त्रे चान्यस्मिन् (अर्थे) निवेशिता । yā loke'nyasminnarthe prasiddhā tantre cānyasmin (arthe) niveśitā । A word used in everyday life is used in one sense while it is used in another sense for technical term in scientific treatise. For instance, we use the word रूप in daily life to mean colour - white, red etc, but in आयुर्वेद it means a symptom.

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== Shastra pariksha ==

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Ayurveda is known to be the upaveda of Atharvaveda and Rigveda. However, being traditional medical system, the knowledge of Ayurveda is offered by ancient sages and seers in classical treatises as a shastra. These treatises offer Ayurveda knowledge in systematic manner. This knowledge has been offered in a structured, standardized and organized manner in various samhitas that are developed by strictly following the guidelines of developing Shastra samhitas or tantras of various topics. Ancient Ayurveda scholars have followed these rules and provided guidelines for a student to select the appropriate Shastra before starting the learning process. This is described as a 'Shastra pariksha' in Vimanasthanam of Charaka samhita. Although these qualities are described as desired qualities for a treatise on Ayurveda or medical science, most of these are applicable to the samhitas on other shastras also. <blockquote>बुद्धिमानात्मनःकार्यगुरुलाघवंकर्मफलमनुबन्धंदेशकालौचविदित्वायुक्तिदर्शनाद्भिषग्बुभूषुःशास्त्रमेवादितःपरीक्षेत| (Char. Samh. 8.3) <ref>Charaka Samhita ([http://niimh.nic.in/ebooks/ecaraka/?mod=read Vimanasthanam Adhyaya 8 Sutra 3])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>buddhimānātmanaḥkāryagurulāghavaṁkarmaphalamanubandhaṁdeśakālaucaviditvāyuktidarśanādbhiṣagbubhūṣuḥśāstramevāditaḥparīkṣeta| </blockquote>The desired qualities to look for in a treatise are as follows,

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# सुमहत् : comprehensive providing all information

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# यशस्विधीरपुरुषासेवितम् : successful, followed by prominent and wise men(successful practitioners)

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# अर्थबहुलम् : with detailed meanings

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# आप्तजनपूजितम् : regarded by authorities

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# त्रिविधशिष्यबुद्धिहितम् : useful to all three types of learners ( with good, moderate and poor intellect)

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# अपगतपुनरुक्तदोषम् : free from the deformity of reiteration

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# आर्षम् : descending from the sages (which is written by experienced, intuitive person)

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# सुप्रणीतसूत्रभाष्यसङ्ग्रहक्रम् : with well- formed presentation, discussion and conclusion

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# स्वाधारम्, अनवपतितशब्दम्, अकष्टशब्दम् : having informative title and firm base free from weak and difficult words

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# पुष्कलाभिधानम् : having comprehensive knowledge of subject

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# क्रमागतार्थम् : with proper sequencing of its contents

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# अतत्त्वविनिश्चयप्रधानम्, असङ्गतार्थम् : committed principally to arriving at the essence of thoughts, which reveals cleary meanings and concrete conclusion, focused on the particular subject without wavering ideas and irrelevant content,

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# असङ्कुलप्रकरणम् : quickly understandable with separated topics

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# आशुप्रबोधकम् लक्षणवच्चोदाहरणवच्च : effectively comprehensible, and having definitions showed with examples

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Such Shastra with pure knowledge is compared with the sun which enlightens the whole subject while warding off the darkness.

== Methodology of Modern Scientific Treatises ==

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* Presentation of Results

* Conclusions

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==References==

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[[Category:Shastras]]

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