Difference between revisions of "Puranas (पुराणानि)"

From Dharmawiki
Jump to navigation Jump to search
(Added Content from Swami Sivananda's book)
(added video)
 
(56 intermediate revisions by 3 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
The word '''Puranas''' ({{lang-sa|{{lang|sa|पुराण}}}}, ''{{IAST|purāṇa}}'', {{IPAc-en|p|ʊ|ˈ|r|ɑː|n|ə|z}};<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/purana "Purana"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref>) literally means "ancient, old",<ref name=merriam>Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, ISBN 0-877790426, page 915</ref> and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.<ref name=oliverleaman437>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 437-439</ref> Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,<ref name=johncort185/><ref name=gregorybailey>Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, page 139</ref> several of these texts are named after major [[Hindu]] deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.<ref name=ludorocher>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 1-5, 12-21</ref><ref name="Nair 2008 266">{{cite book|last=Nair|first=Shantha N.|title=Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice|year=2008|publisher=Hindology Books|isbn=978-81-223-1020-7|page=266|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekehXVP3W8wC&pg=PA266}}</ref> The Puranas genre of literature is found in both [[Hinduism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref name=johncort185>John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791413821, pages 185-204</ref>
+
{{ToBeEdited}}
  
−
The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,<ref name=merriam/> and it includes diverse topics such as [[cosmogony]], [[cosmology]], genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.<ref name=oliverleaman437/><ref name=gregorybailey/><ref name=ludorocher/> The content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent.<ref name=johncort185/> The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.<ref name=johncort185/>
+
Puranas (Samskrit : पुराणानि) are a large number of Bharatiya texts, based on the Vedas and Vedangas, which influence the lifestyle of people of Bharatavarsha. References to Puranas and Itihasas in the Vedas and Vedangas show the significance and ancientness of these texts. They are eighteen in number and are associated with the Upapuranas. They describe a wide variety of aspects related to the bharatiya jivana vidhana namely ceremonies, danas, festivals, cultural aspects, history, geographical location, tattvas and siddhantas of Brahman, yajnas, dharmas, lineages of rulers, origin of creation, numerous ancedotes about deities and celestial beings, tirthas, rivers, vratas, medicine, architecture, and even poetry among the many other things and actions associated with Sanatana Dharma. 
 +
{{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rvNuqlaOOOk&feature=youtu.be
 +
|alignment=right
 +
|dimensions=500x248
 +
|container=frame
 +
|description=Talk on The Puranas: An introduction and interpretation
 +
}}
 +
==परिचयः ॥ Introduction==
 +
The Puranic literature holds a very special place in the life of people following Sanatana Dharma. Many scholars opine that the puranas were the main source of bhagavata katha traditions found in India; the bond that has woven the cultural threads among different peoples across the far corners of our country.
  
−
There are 18 ''Maha Puranas'' (Great Puranas) and 18 ''Upa Puranas'' (Minor Puranas),<ref name=corneliadimmitt4/> with over 400,000 verses.<ref name=oliverleaman437/> The first versions of the various Puranas were likely composed between the 3rd- and 10th-century CE.<ref name=collins36/> The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism,<ref name=corneliadimmitt4>Cornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press, ISBN 978-8120839724, page xii, 4</ref> but are considered a [[Smriti]].<ref>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, page 503</ref>
+
Puranic texts are usually in the form of shlokas as conversation between two or more persons, mostly involving maharshis (Saunaka, Suta, Agasthya) and the deities (Agni, Vishnu, Shiva etc) who describe events and incidents to the other rshis, rajas and devotees. Thus the literature is far popular and widely spread as through the medium of interesting ancedotes easily understood by one and all, they explain valuable virtues and dharmas. They include the stories of personalities from all walks of life; bhaktas, avataras, deities, adharmik people, women, people of different varnas and ashramas, children are all discussed there.  
  
−
They have been influential in the [[Hindu culture]], inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 12-13, 134-156, 203-210</ref> Their role and value as sectarian religious texts and historical texts has been controversial because all Puranas praise many gods and goddesses and "their sectarianism is far less clear cut" than assumed, states [[Ludo Rocher]].<ref name=ludorochersect>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 21-24, 104-113, 115-126</ref> The religious practices included in them are considered ''Vaidika'' (congruent with Vedic literature), because they do not preach initiation into Tantra.<ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page xxxix</ref> The [[Bhagavata Purana]] has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of [[nondualism|non-dualistic]] tenor.<ref name=richardthompson/><ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page xli</ref> The Puranic literature wove with the [[Bhakti movement]] in India, and both [[Dvaita]] and [[Advaita]] scholars have commented on the underlying Vedantic themes in the ''Maha Puranas''.<ref>BN Krishnamurti Sharma (2008), A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120815759, pages 128-131</ref>
+
All the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Samhitas, while Vedas are Prabhu-Samhitas. Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he is Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara.<ref name=":0">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 41-45</ref>
  
−
==Description==
+
The Puranas popularised the teachings of the Vedas. They contain the essence of the Vedas. The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God, through concrete examples, stories, legends, lives of saints, kings and great men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events. Many vratas (vows) have associated kathas (stories) from various Puranas. They also give a description of the regions of the universe not visible to the ordinary physical eye. The ancient seers made use of Puranas to illustrate the eternal principles of dharmas for people of all ashramas. The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary people who could not understand deep philosophy and who could not devote time for the study the Vedas.<ref name=":0" />
−
The Puranas are of the same class as the Itihasas. They have
 
−
five characteristics (Pancha-Lakshanq viz., history, cosmology (with various
 
−
symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles), secondary creation,
 
−
genealogy of kings and of Manvantaras. All the Puranas belong to the class of
 
−
Suhrit-Samhitas. Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for
 
−
this age, he is Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara. The Puranas were
 
−
written to popularise the religion of the Vedas. They contain the essence of
 
−
the Vedas. The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the
 
−
teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God, through
 
−
concrete examples, myths, stories, legends, lives of saints, kings and great
 
−
men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events. The sages made use
 
−
of these things to illustrate the eternal principles of religion. The Puranas
 
−
were meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary people who
 
  
−
could not understand high philosophy and who co not study
+
The Darsanas and shastras are technical in nature understood by a few who pursue to study them. Through Puranas, essential common dharmas are taught in a very easy and interesting way and are heard even to this day, thus they are popular.
−
the Vedas. The Darsanas are very stiff. They are meant only the learned few.
+
== Special Aspects about Puranas ==
−
The Puranas are meant for the mass<nowiki>'''</nowiki>. with inferior intellect. Religion is
+
This section discusses about the origin, compilation and phalashruti  (benefits) of Puranas. Many Puranas mention that they
−
taught in a very easy and interesting way through these Puranas. Even to thsiY
+
* originated from Brahma's recollection 
−
day, the Puranas are popular. The Puranas contain th8 history of remote times.
+
* organized and compiled by Maharshi Vedavyasa into eighteen mahapuranas
−
They also give a description of the regions of the universe not visible to the
+
* were a single unit prior to being compiled and systematized by Vyasa into 18 Puranas in every Yuga cycle.
−
ordinan, Kathas in temples, on banks of rivers and from their grandmothers.
+
* that they existed across Kalpas and Yugas
−
Pundits and Purohits hold full of information of all kinds. Children hear the
+
* they consist of certain essential characteristics about the subject matter  they deal viz., [[Purana Lakshana (पुराणलक्षणम्)]]
−
stories physical eye. They are very interesting to read in and arje important
+
* are the means to accomplish Trivarga (त्रिवर्गसाधनं । means to attain Dharma, Artha, Kama) and Punya.
−
places. Agriculturists, labourers and bazaar people hear the stories. The
 
−
Eighteen Puranas There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of
 
−
subsidiary Puranas or Upa-Puranas. The main Puranas are: Vishnu Purana,
 
−
Naradiya Purana, Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Garuda (Suparna) Purana, Padma
 
−
Purana, Varaha Purana, Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana,
 
−
Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Matsya Purana, Kurma
 
−
Purana, Linga Purana, Siva Purana, Skanda Purana and Agni Purana. Of these, six
 
−
are Sattvic Puranas and glorify Vishnu; six are Rajasic and glorify, Brahma;
 
−
six are Tamasic and they glorify Siva. Neophytes or beginners in the spiritual
 
−
path are puzzled when they go through Siva Purana and Vishnu • d Purana. In
 
−
Siva Purana, Lord Siva is highly eulogise and an inferior position is given to
 
−
Lord Vishnu. Sometimes Vishnu is belittled. In Vishnu Lord purarla, to Hari is
 
−
highly eulogised and an inferior status is given iv Lord Siva. Sometimes Lord
 
−
Siva is belittled. This is °11' to increase the faith of the devotees in their
 
−
particular•
 
  
−
Ishta-Devata. Lord Siva and Lord Vishnu are one.
+
=== Origin ===
 +
Matsya, Skanda and Padma Puranas mention that the Puranas have been given to the world, after Brahma deliberated on them. <blockquote>पुराणं सर्वशास्त्राणां प्रथमं ब्रह्मणा स्मृतम् अनन्तरं च वक्त्रेभ्यो वेदास्तस्य विनिर्गताः ३</blockquote><blockquote>पुराणमेकमेवासीत्तदा कल्पान्तरेऽनघ त्रिवर्गसाधनं पुण्यं शतकोटिप्रविस्तरम् ४ (Mats. Pura. 53.3 and 4)<ref name=":1">Matsya Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 53])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>पुराणं सर्वशास्त्राणां प्रथमं ब्रह्मणा स्मृतम् ४५ (Padm. Pura. 1.1.45)<ref>Padma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D)/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A7 Khanda 1] Srustikhandam)</ref></blockquote>Summary : Brahma first (recollected) remembered the Puranas in all shastras, later from him (his four faces) came the Vedas. There was only one (unit) of the Puranas at the beginning of the Kalpa.  <blockquote>पुरा तपश्चचारोग्रममराणां पितामहः । आविर्भूतास्ततो वेदाः सषडंगपदक्रमाः ॥ ३ ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>ततः पुराणमखिलं सर्वशास्त्रमयं ध्रुवम् ॥ (Skan. Pura. 7.1.23-4)</blockquote>Skanda Purana (7.2.5)<ref name=":2">Skanda Purana (Prabhasa Khanda, Prabhasa Kshetra Mahatmya, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AD_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 2])</ref> mentions that Puranas were given by Brahma (Pitamaha) who performed a severe tapas and from whom the Vedas along with the Vedangas manifested. After the Vedas all the Puranas consisting of the eternal sounds (of Vedas) extending to a hundred crore slokas manifested from the mouth of Brahma.
  
−
The best among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata and the
+
Bhavishya Purana describe the origin of creation and the puranas from the five faces of Brahma in Brahma Parva (सृष्टिवर्णनं पुराणानां ब्रह्मपञ्चमास्यादुत्पत्तिवर्णनञ्च)
−
Vishnu Purana. The most popular is the Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Next comes
 
−
Vishnu Purana. A portion of the Markandeya Purana is well known to all Hindus
 
−
as Chand 4 or Devimahatmya. Worship of God as the Divine Mother is its theme.
 
−
Chandi is read widely by the Hindus on sacred days and Navaratri (Durga Puja)
 
−
days. The Srimad Bhagavata Purana and the Ten Avataras The Srimad Bhagavata
 
−
Purana is a chronicle of the various Avataras of Lord Vishnu. There are ten
 
−
Avataras of Vishnu. The aim of every Avatara is to save the world from some
 
−
great danger, to destroy the wicked and protect the virtuous. The ten Avataras
 
−
are: Matsya (The Fish), Kurma (The Tortoise), Varaha (The Boar), Narasimha (The
 
−
Man-Lion), Vamana (The Dwarf), Parasurama (Rama with the axe, the destroyer of
 
−
the Kshatriya race), Ramachandra (The hero of Ramayana—the son of Dasaratha),
 
−
who destroyed Ravana, Sri Krishna, The teacher of the Gita, Buddha (The
 
−
prince-ascetic, founder of Buddhism) and Kalki (The hero riding on a white
 
−
horse, who is to come at the end of the Kali-Yuga). The object of the Matsya
 
−
Avatara was to save Vaivasvata Manu from destruction by a deluge. The object of
 
−
Kurma Avatara was to enable the world to recover some precious things which
 
−
were lost in the deluge. The Kurma gave its back for keeping the churning rod
 
−
when the Gods and the Asuras churned the ocean of milk. The purpose of Varaha
 
−
Avatara was to rescue, from the waters, the earth which had been dragged down
 
−
by a demon named Hiranyaksha. The purpose of Narasimha Avatara, half-lion and
 
−
half-man, was to free the world from the oppression of Hiranyakasipu, a demon,
 
−
the father of Bhakta Prahlada. The object of Vamana Avatara was to restore the
 
−
power of the gods which had been eclipsed by the penance and devotion of King
 
−
Bali. The object of Parasurama Avatara
 
  
−
44
+
Matsya Purana describes the origin and phalashruti of Puranas thus - the learned, those who know, say that the recitation of the list of the '''Puranas dealing with kalpas''' (records of prior events from ancient Kalpas) brings fame and longevity. <blockquote>पुरातनस्य कल्पस्य पुराणानि विदुर्बुधाः धन्यं यशस्यमायुष्यं पुराणानामनुक्रमम् (Mats. Pura. 53.63)<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>Linga purana clearly states that it was composed by Brahma based on the events that happened in the Ishana Kalpa and originally it contained a crore shlokas among a hundred crore that comprised all the Puranas.<blockquote>ईशानकल्पवृत्तांतमधिकृत्य महात्मना।। ब्रह्मणा कल्पितं पूर्वं पुराणं लौंगमुत्तमम्।। २.१ ।। (Ling. Pura. 1.2.1)<ref>Linga Purana (Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 2) in sa.wikisource.org</ref></blockquote>The above reference amply supports the fact that Puranas are not myths or made up stories but they are layer of antique literature which are coming down since very large periods of time, from across the Kalpas. This fact also explains the variant versions of the same legends as they have variations in different kalpas.
 +
=== Veda Vyasa Compiled Puranas ===
 +
Maharshi Veda Vyasa is credited with the organization of the Ashtadasha Mahapuranas or the Eighteen Mahapuranas as per many Puranas themselves. The Vayu Purana cites that Ashtadasha Puranas and Itihasa (Mahabharata) from the beginning to the end is the prasada of Vyasa maharshi. <blockquote>व्यासप्रसादाधिगतशास्त्रसम्बोधनेन च ।। ४२.१ ।। </blockquote><blockquote>अष्टादशपुराणानि सेतिहासानि चानघ। उपक्रमोपसंहार विधिनोक्तानि कृत्स्नशः ।। ४२.२ ।। (Vayu. Pura. 2.42.1-2)<ref>Vayu Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%A8 Uttarardham Adhyaya 42])</ref></blockquote>Krishna Dvaipayana (name of Vyasa in the present Vaivasvata Manvantara) composed (has given) the puranas. <blockquote>कृष्णद्वैपायनेनोक्तं पुराणं ब्रह्मवादिना ।। ४१.५१ ।। (Vayu. Pura. 2.41.51)<ref name=":03">Vayu Purana (Uttarardham [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/वायुपुराणम्/उत्तरार्धम्/अध्यायः_४१ Adhyaya 41])</ref></blockquote>
  
−
was to deliver the country from oppression of the the o  Kshatriya rulers. Parasurama destroyed the
+
=== In Vedas and Vedangas ===
−
Kshatriya race twenty-one times. The object of Rama was to destroy the wicked
+
In '''Taittriya Aranyaka''' (2.10) of Krishna Yajurveda and Shatapatha Brahmana (11.5.6-8) we find a mention of Brahmanas, Itihasas, Puranas, and Narasamshi gathas that are part of svadhyaya.<blockquote>मध्वाहुतयो ह वा एता देवानाम्। यदनुशासनानि विद्या वाकोवाक्यमितिहासपुराणं गाथा नाराशंस्यः स य एवं विद्वाननुशासनानि विद्या वाकोवाक्यमितिहासपुराणं गाथा नाराशंसीरित्यहरहः स्वाध्यायमधीते.... (Shat. Brah. 11.5.6)<ref>Shatapatha Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%85%E0%A Kanda 11, Adhyaya 5, Brahmana 6])</ref></blockquote>Puranas find a mention in the '''Atharva veda''' along with Itihasas in the singular; where it is said that the rks, the samans, the chandas, puranas, yajus originated from the residue (ucchista) of the yajnas.<blockquote>ऋचः सामानि छन्दांसि पुराणं यजुषा सह । उच्छिष्टाज्जज्ञिरे सर्वे दिवि देवा दिविश्रितः ॥२४॥ (Athar. Veda. 11.9.24)<ref>Atharva Veda (Kanda 11, Sukta 9)</ref> </blockquote>'''Brhdaranyanka Upanishad''' (4.1.2 and 4.5.11) ascribes the origin of the four vedas, Itihas and Puranas, Vidyas, Upanishad shlokas, sutras, their commentaries to the breath of the Mahabhuta (Virat Purusha).<blockquote>वा अरेऽस्य महतो भूतस्य निःश्वसितमेतद्यदृग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्वाङ्गिरस इतिहासः पुराणं विद्या उपनिषदः श्लोकाः सूत्राण्यनुव्याख्यानानि व्याख्याननीष्टं (Brhd. Upan. 4.5.11)</blockquote>'''Gautama Dharmasutras''' in the context of explaining that the inanimates, animate beings, birds, reptiles, trees - all depend on two classes of people namely the Rajas and Brahmanas who are vedavidvans (बहुश्रुत-ब्राह्मणः), the nature of an educated vedavidvan is described. <blockquote>स एव बहुश्रुतो भवति ॥ 4 ॥ लोकवेदवेदाङ्गवित् ॥ 5 ॥ वाकोवाक्येतिहासपुराणकुशलः ॥ 6 ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 1.8.4-6)<ref name=":3">Dr. Umesh Chandra Pandey. (1966) ''Gautama Dharmasutra with Mitakshari Sanskrit Commentary of Haradatta.'' Varanasi : Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office ([https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.429882/page/n135 See Prashna 1, Adhyaya 8])</ref></blockquote>Bahusthruta Brahmana is that person who has jnana in the four vedas, the six vedangas and is a learned in veda-shastra related tarka or arguments, itihasa and puranas. He not only has faith in them but also actively performs the acharas in accordance with them.<ref name=":3" />
−
Ravana. The object of Sri Krishna Avatara to deliver His was to destroy Kamsa
 
−
and other demons,  wonderful message of
 
−
the Gita in the Mahabharata war, and to become the centre of the Bhakti schools
 
−
of India. The object of Buddha Avatara was to prohibit animal sacrifices and
 
−
teach piety. The object of the Kalki Avatara is the destruction of the wicked
 
−
and the re-establishment of virtue.  
 
  
−
The Tamil Puranas Lord Siva incarnated himself in the form
+
'''Gautama Dharmasutras''' (2.2.19) maintain that the main instruments of conduct of activities (vyavahara) for a Raja (ruler) include Vedas, Dharmashastras, Vedangas, Upavedas, and Puranas.
−
of Dakshinamurti to impart knowledge to the four Kumaras. He took human form to
 
−
initiate Sambandhar, Manikkavasagar, Pattinathar. He appeared in flesh and
 
−
blood to help his devotees and relieve their sufferings. The divine Lilas of
 
−
Lord Siva are recorded in the Tamil Puranas like Siva Purana, Periya Purana,
 
−
Siva Parakramam and Tiruvilayadal Purana.  
 
  
−
The Upa-Puranas The eighteen Upa-Puranas are: Sanatkumara,
+
One may notice the importance of Puranas and their role in the lives of people of India in more than one ways. '''Manusmrti''' (3.232) further emphasizes that during shraddha rites svadhyaya (study of vedas) has to be rendered in the honour of the forefathers, and thus Vedas, Dharmashastras, Akhyayanas (legends) Itihasa (Ramayana and Mahabharata), Puranas and Khilas have to be recited (to the guests).<blockquote>स्वाध्यायं श्रावयेत्पित्र्ये धर्मशास्त्राणि चैव हि । आख्यानानीतिहासांश्च पुराणानि खिलानि च । । ३.२३२ (Manu. Smrt. 3.232)<ref>Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>Thus along with Vedic recitation the age old practice of rendering Puranas during Shraddha persists in the Bharatiya tradition.
−
Narasimha, Brihannaradiya, Sivarahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava,
 
−
Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata,
 
−
Ganesa and Hamsa.  
 
  
−
Utility of the Puranas Study of the Puranas, listening to
+
=== Panchamaveda ===
−
sacred recitals of scriptures, describing and expounding of the transcendent
+
According to a few scholars<ref>Pt. Giridhar Sharma Chaturvedi (1998) ''Purana Parishilan (Hindi).'' Patna : Bihar Rashtrabhasha Parishad. (Pages 2-3)</ref> the explanation of how Puranas get an equal place as Vedas, forming the Panchamaveda is given in the following way. In the Vratyakanda of Atharvaveda we find the following mantras<blockquote>तमितिहासश्च पुराणं च गाथाश्च नाराशंसीश्चानुव्यचलन् । [११] इतिहासस्य च वै स पुराणस्य च गाथानां च नाराशंसीनां च प्रियं धाम भवति य एवं वेद।। (Athar. Veda. 15.6.11-12)<ref>Atharva Veda (Kanda 15, Sukta 6)</ref></blockquote>In Vratyakanda (15th Kanda of Atharvaveda) mantras we find the explanation that Vratyas (also called Kesins (Rig Veda 10.136.1-7) - a group of wandering ascetic people following Vrata) were a preraka (inducers) for prajapati also. Vratyas worshipped elements of nature and Rudra is said to be Vratyapati as described by the Shatarudriya of Yajurveda. We find in the present context that the Vratyas spread to different directions and along with the devatas, pitrs etc who go along with them. In the fifth and sixth suktas of the Vratyakanda it is mentioned that the four vedas, Itihasa, Puranas, Gathas including the Narasamshi, spread with them. Here it suffices to mention that Itihasa and Puranas have the same significance along with the four vedas and thus they form the Fifth Vedas. More details of Vratyas is dealt with separately.  
−
Lilas of the Blessed Lord—these form all important part of Saclhana of the
 
−
Lord's devotees. it is, most pleasing to the Lord. . Srauana is a part °I
 
−
Navavidha-BhaktiKathas and Upanyasas open tile springs of devotion in the
 
−
hearts of hearers and devel°P Prema-Bhaktiwhich confers immortality on the Jiocl. 
 
  
−
==Etymology==
+
Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2 and 4), Skanda Purana (5.3.1.18)<ref name=":1222">Skanda Puranam ([http://vedicreserve.mum.edu/puranas/skanda_purana/skanda_purana_05avanti_03reva.pdf Reva Khanda])</ref> and Bhagavata Purana (1.4.20)<ref name=":02">Shrimad Bhagavata Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Skanda 1 Adhyaya 4])</ref> mention that Puranas are the texts collectively as Panchamaveda.
−
Douglas Harper states that the etymological origins of ''Puranas'' is from Sanskrit ''Puranah'', literally "ancient, former," from ''pura'' "formerly, before," cognate with Greek ''paros'' "before," ''pro'' "before," Avestan ''paro'' "before," Old English fore, from proto-Indo-European ''*pre-'', from root ''*per-''."<ref>Douglas Harper (2015), [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Purana Purana], Etymology Dictionary</ref>
 
  
−
==Origins==
+
== Classification of Puranas ==
−
{{Hinduism}}
+
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|thumb|600x600px|Classification of 18 Mahapuranas ]]
−
[[Vyasa]], the narrator of the [[Mahabharata]], is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas.<ref>[http://www.dlshq.org/religions/puranas.htm The Puranas by Swami Sivananda]</ref>
+
Puranas have been classified based on the three gunas, Satvika, Rajasa and Tamasa. Matsya and Skanda purana (Skan. Pura. 7.2.57-58)<ref name=":2" /> slokas clearly mention the classification of Puranas as mentioned below. <blockquote>सात्त्विकेषु पुराणेषु माहात्म्यमधिकं हरेः राजसेषु च माहात्म्यमधिकं ब्रह्मणो विदुः ६८</blockquote><blockquote>तद्वदग्नेश्च माहात्म्यं तामसेषु शिवस्य च संकीर्णेषु सरस्वत्याः पितॄणां च निगद्यते ६९ (Mats. Pura. 53.68-69)<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>Summary : Know that in satvika puranas the glory of Shri Hari is largely mentioned while rajasa puranas greatly mention Brahma's glory. Similarly tamasa puranas there is a mention about the glory of Agni and Shiva. In all the three types of puranas, the glory of Sarasvati and the pitrs (forefathers) have been described.  
  
−
The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas.<ref name = Johnson247>{{Harvnb|Johnson|2009|p = 247}}</ref> They existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century.<ref name = Johnson247/><ref>{{Harvnb|Singh|1997|p=2324}}</ref>
+
== अष्टादशमहापुराणानि ॥ Eighteen Mahapuranas ==
 +
Devi Bhagavata enumerates the eighteen Mahapuranas in a nutshell in the following sloka taking their initial letter. <blockquote>मद्वयं भद्वयं चैव व्रत्रयं वचतुष्टयम् । अनाप-लिंग-कूस्कानि पुराणानि पृथक्पृथक् ॥ २ ॥ (Devi. Bhag. 1.3.2)<ref>Devi Bhagavata Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5 Skanda 1 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>
 +
* मद्वयं refers to the two Puranas, the names of which begin with म(Ma). They are Markandeya and Matsya Puranas.
 +
* भद्वयं refers to the two Puranas, the names of which begin with भ (Bha). They are Bhagavata and Bhavishya.
 +
* व्रत्रयं refers to the three Puranas, the names of which begin with ब्र (Bra). They are Brahma, Brahmanda and Brahmavaivarta Puranas.
 +
* वचतुष्टयम् refers to the four Puranas, the names of which begin with व (Va). They are Vishnu, Vamana, Vayu and Varaha Puranas.
 +
* अनाप-लिं-ग-कूस्कानि refers to Agni (अ), Naaradiya (ना) Padma (प) Linga (लिं) Garuda (ग) Kurma (कू) Skanda (स्का) Puranas.
 +
The list of Puranas and Upapuranas is given in many puranas such as Padmapurana, Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana, Agni Purana (10.8.3), however, they differ widely in names of the puranas (पुराणसंख्यान्तरम्) included and the number of slokas mentioned.
  
−
An early occurrence of the term 'purana' is found in the [[Chandogya Upanishad]] (7.1.2), translated by [[Patrick Olivelle]] as "the corpus of histories and ancient tales" (The Early Upanisads, 1998, p.&nbsp;259). The [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] refers to purana as the "fifth Veda",<ref>[[Brhadaranyaka Upanisad]] 2.4.10, 4.1.2, 4.5.11. Satapatha Brahmana (SBE, Vol. 44, pp. 98, 369). {{Harvnb|Moghe|1997|pp=160,249}}</ref> ''{{IAST|itihāsapurāṇaṃ pañcamaṃ vedānāṃ}}'', reflecting the early religious importance of these facts, which over time have been forgotten and presumably then in purely oral form. Importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the [[Atharvaveda]] 11.7.24.{{Sfn|Pargiter|1962|pp=30–54}}<ref name="moghe">{{Harvnb|Moghe|1997|p=249}} and the [[Satapatha Brahmana]] 11.5.6.8. and 13.4.3.13.  [[Sacred Books of the East|SBE]] Vol. 44, pp. 98, 369</ref> It is important to bear in mind that perhaps a thousand years separates the occurrence of this term in these Upanisads from 'The Puranas' understood as a unified set of texts (see below), and it is therefore by no means certain that the term as it occurs in the Upanisads has any direct relation to what today is identified as 'The Puranas'. The extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas.<ref>Thomas Colburn (2002), Devī-māhātmya: The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805576, page 27</ref> Rajendra Hazra notes that Puranas that survive presently do not follow, partially or totally, the characteristic definition of the scope and contents of Puranas as described in ancient non-Puranic Indian texts.<ref>RC Hazra (1987), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 5-7</ref>
+
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|+
 +
List of Maha Puranas in various puranas
 +
!Purana Name
 +
!List of Mahapuranas
 +
|-
 +
|Skanda Purana (Khanda-7 Prabhasa, Prabhasa Kshetra Mahatmya, Adhyaya 2, Shlokas 5-8)<ref name=":2" />
 +
|Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Bhagavata, Bhavishya, Naradiya, Markandeya, Agneya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda, '''Vayu''' Puranas
 +
|-
 +
|Vishnu Purana (Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6, Slokas 20-24)<ref name=":12">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref>,
 +
Padma Purana (Khanda-6, Adhyaya 236, Shlokas 14-17)<ref>Padma Purana (Khanda 6 (Uttara Khanda) Adhyaya 236) in sa.wikisource.org</ref>,  
 +
 
 +
Varaha Purana (Adhyaya 112, Shlokas 74-77)<ref>Varaha Purana (Adhyaya 112) in sa.wikisource.org</ref>
 +
|Brahma, '''Padma''', Vishnu, Shiva, Bhagavata, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda and Brahmanda Puranas
 +
|-
 +
|Garuda Purana (Khanda-1 Acharakhanda, Adhyaya 223, Shlokas 15-16)<ref name=":4">Garuda Purana (Acharakhanda, Adhyaya 223) in sa.wikisource.org</ref>
 +
Kurma Purana (Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1, Shlokas 13-15)<ref>Kurma Purana (Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1) in sa.wikisource.org</ref>
 +
|Brahma, '''Padma''', Vishnu, Shiva, Bhagavata, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda and '''Vayu'''
 +
|}
 +
Shivamahapuranam 5.5.15
  
−
In the 19th century, [[F. E. Pargiter]] believed the "original Purana" may date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas.{{Sfn|Pargiter|1962|pp=30–54}} Gavin Flood connects the rise of the written Purana historically with the rise of  devotional cults centring upon a particular deity in the Gupta era: the Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing cults.<ref name="flood" /> [[Wendy Doniger]], based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas. She dates [[Markandeya Purana]] to c. 250 CE (with one portion dated to c. 550 CE), [[Matsya Purana]] to c. 250–500 CE, [[Vayu Purana]] to c. 350 CE, [[Harivamsa]] and [[Vishnu Purana]] to c. 450 CE, [[Brahmanda Purana]] to c. 350–950 CE, [[Vamana Purana]] to c. 450–900 CE, [[Kurma Purana]] to c. 550–850 CE, and [[Linga Purana]] to c. 600–1000 CE.<ref name=collins36>{{cite book|last=Collins|first=Charles Dillard|title=The Iconography and Ritual of Śiva at Elephanta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pQNi6kAGJQ4C&pg=PA36|year=1988|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-88706-773-0|page=36}}</ref>
+
The main Puranas are: {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
 +
* [[Vishnu Purana]]
 +
* [[Naradiya Purana]]
 +
* [[Srimad Bhagavata Purana]]
 +
* [[Garuda (Suparna) Purana]]
 +
* [[Padma Purana]]
 +
* [[Varaha Purana]]
 +
* [[Brahma Purana]]
 +
* [[Brahmanda Purana]]
 +
* [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]
 +
* [[Markandeya Purana]]
 +
* [[Bhavishya Purana]]
 +
* [[Vamana Purana]]
 +
* [[Matsya Purana]]
 +
* [[Kurma Purana]]
 +
* [[Linga Purana]]
 +
* [[Siva Purana]]
 +
* [[Skanda Purana]]
 +
* [[Agni Purana]]
 +
}}  
  
−
==Texts==
+
The widely studied among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Devi Mahatmya of Markandeya Purana among others. Garuda Purana is prescribed to be read during the ten days after the death of a person. 
  
−
===Mahapuranas===
+
A portion of the Markandeya Purana is well known to all Hindus as '''Chandi''' or '''Devi Mahatmya'''. Its theme is worship of God as the Divine Mother. Chandi is read widely by the Hindus on sacred days and Navaratri (Durga Puja) days.<ref name=":0" />
−
Of the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the ''{{IAST|Mahāpurāṇa}}s'' or the major Puranas.<ref name=corneliadimmitt4/> These are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way.
+
== अष्टादश-उपपुराणानि ॥ The Eighteen Upa-Puranas ==
 +
The eighteen Upa-Puranas according to Garuda Purana are  <blockquote>अन्यान्युपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि तु । आद्यं सनत्कुमारोक्तं नारसिंहमथापरम् ॥ १,२२३.१७ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>तृतीयं स्कान्दमुद्दिष्टं कुमारेण तु भाषितम् । चतुर्थं शिवधर्माख्यं स्यान्नन्दीश्वरभाषितम् ॥ १,२२३.१८ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>दुर्वाससोक्तमाश्चर्यं नारदोक्तमतः परम् । कापिलं वामनञ्चैव तथैवोशनसेरितम् ॥ १,२२३.१९ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>ब्रह्माण्डं वारुणञ्चाथ कालिकाह्वयमेव च । माहेश्वरं तथा साम्बमेवं सर्वार्थसञ्चयम् ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरोक्तमपरं मारीचं भार्गवाह्वयम् ॥ १,२२३.२० ॥ (Garu. Pura. 1.223.18-20)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Sanatkumara, Narasimha, Brihannaradiya, Sivarahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesa and Hamsa.
 +
==Content of Puranas==
 +
Given below are the number of shlokas in each purana according to Shrimad Bhagavata Purana (Skanda 12)
  
−
{| class="wikitable sortable"|-
+
{| class="wikitable sortable" |-
−
!S.No. !! Purana name !! Verses number !! Comments
+
!S. No
 +
!Purana Name
 +
!Number of Shlokas (श्लोकसंख्यानि)
 +
!Contents
 +
|-
 +
| 1 || [[Agni Purana|Agni]] || 15,400 shlokas || Contains encyclopedic information. Includes geography of Mithila (Bihar and neighboring states in India), cultural history, politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories, organization of army, theories on proper causes for war, diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, Vastu Shastra (architecture), gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry, food, rituals and numerous other topics.
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 1 || [[Agni Purana|Agni]] || 15,400 verses || Contains encyclopedic information. Includes geography of Mithila ([[Bihar]] and neighboring states), cultural history, politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories, organization of army, theories on proper causes for war, diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, Vastu Shastra (architecture), gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry, food, rituals and numerous other topics.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 134-137</ref>
+
| 2 || [[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavata]] || 18,000 shlokas || The most studied and popular of the Puranas,<ref name="richardthompson">{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Richard L.|title=The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC&pg=PA10|year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-1919-1|page=10}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1899|p=752}}, column 3, under the entry ''Bhagavata.''</ref> telling of Vishnu's Avatars [[Dasha Avataras (दशावताराः)]], and of Vaishnavism. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name="ludorocher115">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 115-121 with footnotes</ref> Numerous inconsistent versions of this text and historical manuscripts exist, in many Indian languages.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 139-149</ref> Influential and elaborated during [[Bhakti movement]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hardy|2001}}</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 2 || [[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavata]] || 18,000 verses || The most studied and popular of the Puranas,<ref name=richardthompson>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Richard L.|title=The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC&pg=PA10|year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-1919-1|page=10}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1899|p=752}}, column 3, under the entry ''Bhagavata.''</ref> telling of Vishnu's [[Avatar]]s, and of Vaishnavism. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name=ludorocher115/> Numerous inconsistent versions of this text and historical manuscripts exist, in many Indian languages.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 139-149</ref> Influential and elaborated during [[Bhakti movement]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hardy|2001}}</ref>
+
| 3 || [[Brahma Purana|Brahma]] || 10,000 shlokas || Sometimes also called Adi Purana, because many Mahapuranas lists put it first of 18.<ref name="ludorocher154" /> The text has 245 chapters, shares many passages with Vishnu, Vayu, Markendeya Puranas, and with the [[Mahabharata]]. Includes mythology, theory of war, art work in temples, and other cultural topics. Describes holy places in [[Odisha]], and weaves themes of Vishnu and Shiva, but hardly any mention of deity Brahma despite the title.<ref name="ludorocher154">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 154-156</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 3 || [[Brahma Purana|Brahma]] || 10,000 verses || Sometimes also called Adi Purana, because many Mahapuranas lists put it first of 18.<ref name=ludorocher154/> The text has 245 chapters, shares many passages with Vishnu, Vayu, Markendeya Puranas, and with the [[Mahabharata]]. Includes mythology, theory of war, art work in temples, and other cultural topics. Describes holy places in [[Odisha]], and weaves themes of Vishnu and Shiva, but hardly any mention of deity Brahma despite the title.<ref name=ludorocher154>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 154-156</ref>
+
| 4 || [[Brahmanda Purana|Brahmanda]] || 12,000 shlokas || One of the earliest composed Puranas, it contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name="ludorocher115" /> Includes [[Lalita Sahasranamam]], law codes, system of governance, administration, diplomacy, trade, ethics. Old manuscripts of Brahmanda Purana have been found in the Hindu literature collections of [[Bali]], Indonesia.<ref>H Hinzler (1993), [http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/22134379-90003116%3Fcrawler%3Dtrue Balinese palm-leaf manuscripts], In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde, Manuscripts of Indonesia 149 (1993), No 3, Leiden: BRILL, page 442</ref><ref name="ludorocher78encyl">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 78-79</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 4 || [[Brahmanda Purana|Brahmanda]] || 12,000 verses || One of the earliest composed Puranas, it contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name=ludorocher115/> Includes [[Lalita Sahasranamam]], law codes, system of governance, administration, diplomacy, trade, ethics. Old manuscripts of Brahmanda Purana have been found in the Hindu literature collections of [[Bali]], Indonesia.<ref>H Hinzler (1993), [http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/22134379-90003116%3Fcrawler%3Dtrue Balinese palm-leaf manuscripts], In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde, Manuscripts of Indonesia 149 (1993), No 3, Leiden: BRILL, page 442</ref><ref name=ludorocher78encyl>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 78-79</ref>
+
| 5 || [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana|Brahmavaivarta]] || 18,000 shlokas  || Discusses Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha, Devis, Vishnu, Krishna and Radha. Primarily mythology, love and seduction stories of gods and goddesses.<ref>Giorgio Bonazzoli (1977), Seduction Stories in the Brahmavaivarta Purana, Purana, Vol. XIX, No. 2, pages 321-341</ref> Mentions geography and rivers such as [[Ganga]] to [[Kaveri]].
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 5 || [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana|Brahmavaivarta]] || 17,000 verses || Discusses Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha, Devis, Vishnu, Krishna and Radha. Primarily mythology, love and seduction stories of gods and goddesses.<ref>Giorgio Bonazzoli (1977), Seduction Stories in the Brahmavaivarta Purana, Purana, Vol. XIX, No. 2, pages 321-341</ref> Mentions geography and rivers such as [[Ganga]] to [[Kaveri]].
+
|6
 +
|Bhavishya*
 +
|14,500 shlokas
 +
|
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 6 || [[Garuda Purana|Garuda]] ||  19,000 verses || An encyclopedia of diverse topics.<ref name=ludorocher78encyl/> Primarily about Vishnu, but praises all gods. Describes how Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma collaborate. Many chapters are a dialogue between Vishnu and the bird-vehicle [[Garuda]]. Cosmology, Describes cosmology, relationship between gods. Discusses ethics, what are crimes, good verses evil, various schools of Hindu philosophies, the theory of Yoga, the theory of "heaven and hell" with "karma and rebirth", includes Upanishadic discussion of self-knowledge as a means of [[moksha]].<ref name=mnduttgaruda/> Includes chapters on rivers, geography of Bharat (India) and other nations on earth, types of minerals and stones, testing methods for stones for their quality, various diseases and their symptoms, various medicines, aphrodisiacs, prophylactics, Hindu calendar and its basis, astronomy, moon, planets, astrology, architecture, building home, essential features of a temple, rites of passage, virtues such as compassion, charity and gift making, economy, thrift, duties of a king, politics, state officials and their roles and how to appointment them, genre of literature, rules of grammar, and other topics.<ref name=mnduttgaruda/> The final chapters discuss how to practice [[Yoga]] (Samkhya and Advaita types), personal development and the benefits of self-knowledge.<ref name=mnduttgaruda>MN Dutt, [https://archive.org/stream/garudapuranam00duttgoog#page/n4/mode/2up The Garuda Purana] Calcutta (1908)</ref>
+
| 6 || [[Garuda Purana|Garuda]] ||  19,000 shlokas || An encyclopedia of diverse topics.<ref name="ludorocher78encyl" /> Primarily about Vishnu, but praises all gods. Describes how Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma collaborate. Many chapters are a dialogue between Vishnu and the bird-vehicle [[Garuda]]. Cosmology, Describes cosmology, relationship between gods. Discusses ethics, what are crimes, good verses evil, various schools of Hindu philosophies, the theory of Yoga, the theory of "heaven and hell" with "karma and rebirth", includes Upanishadic discussion of self-knowledge as a means of [[moksha]].<ref name="mnduttgaruda" /> Includes chapters on rivers, geography of Bharat (India) and other nations on earth, types of minerals and stones, testing methods for stones for their quality, various diseases and their symptoms, various medicines, aphrodisiacs, prophylactics, Hindu calendar and its basis, astronomy, moon, planets, astrology, architecture, building home, essential features of a temple, rites of passage, virtues such as compassion, charity and gift making, economy, thrift, duties of a king, politics, state officials and their roles and how to appointment them, genre of literature, rules of grammar, and other topics.<ref name="mnduttgaruda" /> The final chapters discuss how to practice [[Yoga]] (Samkhya and Advaita types), personal development and the benefits of self-knowledge.<ref name="mnduttgaruda">MN Dutt, [https://archive.org/stream/garudapuranam00duttgoog#page/n4/mode/2up The Garuda Purana] Calcutta (1908)</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 7 || [[Kurma Purana|Kurma]]  || 17,000 verses || Is the second of ten major avatars of Lord Vishnu.
+
| 7 || [[Kurma Purana|Kurma]]  || 17,000 shlokas || Is the second of ten major avatars of Lord Vishnu.
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 8 || [[Linga Purana|Linga]]  || 11,000 verses || Discusses [[Lingam]], symbol of Shiva, and origin of the universe. It also contains many stories of Lingam, one of which entails how Agni Lingam solved a dispute between Vishnu and Brahma.
+
| 8 || [[Linga Purana|Linga]]  || 11,000 shlokas || Discusses [[Lingam]], symbol of Shiva, and origin of the universe. It also contains many stories of Lingam, one of which entails how Agni Lingam solved a dispute between Vishnu and Brahma.
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 9 || [[Markandeya Purana|Markandeya]] || 9,000 verses || Describes [[Vindhya Range]] and western India. Probably composed in the valleys of [[Narmada]] and [[Tapti]] rivers, in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Gujarat]].<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 70-71</ref> Named after sage Markandeya, a student of Brahma. Contains chapters on [[dharma]] and on Hindu epic Mahabharata.<ref>RC Hazra (1987), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 8-11</ref> The Purana includes [[Devi Mahatmya]]m of [[Shaktism]].
+
| 9 || [[Markandeya Purana|Markandeya]] || 9,000 shlokas || Describes [[Vindhya Range]] and western India. Probably composed in the valleys of [[Narmada]] and [[Tapti]] rivers, in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Gujarat]].<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 70-71</ref> Named after sage Markandeya, a student of Brahma. Contains chapters on [[dharma]] and on Hindu epic Mahabharata.<ref>RC Hazra (1987), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 8-11</ref> The Purana includes [[Devi Mahatmya]]m of [[Shaktism]].
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 10 || [[Matsya Purana|Matsya]] || 14,000 verses || An encyclopedia of diverse topics.<ref name=ludorocher78encyl/> Narrates the story of [[Matsya]], the first of ten major [[Avatar]]s of Vishnu. Likely composed in west India, by people aware of geographical details of the [[Narmada]] river. Includes legends about Brahma and Saraswati.<ref>Catherine Ludvik (2007), Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004158146, pages 139-141</ref> It also contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name=ludorocher115/>
+
| 10 || [[Matsya Purana|Matsya]] || 14,000 shlokas || An encyclopedia of diverse topics.<ref name="ludorocher78encyl" /> Narrates the story of [[Matsya]], the first of ten major [[Avatar]]s of Vishnu. Likely composed in west India, by people aware of geographical details of the [[Narmada]] river. Includes legends about Brahma and Saraswati.<ref>Catherine Ludvik (2007), Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004158146, pages 139-141</ref> It also contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name="ludorocher115" />
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 11 || [[Narada Purana|Narada]] || 25,000 verses || Also called Naradiya Purana. Discusses the four [[Veda]]s and the six [[Vedanga]]s. Dedicates one chapter each, from Chapters 92 to 109, to summarize the other 17 Maha Puranas and itself. Lists major rivers of India and places of pilgrimage, and a short tour guide for each. Includes discussion of various philosophies, soteriology, planets, astronomy, myths and characteristics of major deities including Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, Krishna, Rama, Lakshmi and others.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 202-203</ref>
+
| 11 || [[Narada Purana|Narada]] || 25,000 shlokas || Also called Naradiya Purana. Discusses the four [[Veda]]s and the six [[Vedanga]]s. Dedicates one chapter each, from Chapters 92 to 109, to summarize the other 17 Maha Puranas and itself. Lists major rivers of India and places of pilgrimage, and a short tour guide for each. Includes discussion of various philosophies, soteriology, planets, astronomy, myths and characteristics of major deities including Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, Krishna, Rama, Lakshmi and others.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 202-203</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 12 || [[Padma Purana|Padma]] || 55,000 verses || A large compilation of diverse topics. The north Indian manuscripts of Padma Purana are very different than south Indian versions, and the various recensions in both groups in different languages (Devanagari and Bengali, for example) show major inconsistencies.<ref name="ludorocher2021"/> Describes cosmology, the world and nature of life from the perspective of Vishnu. Discusses festivals, numerous legends, geography of rivers and regions from northwest India to [[Bengal]] to the kingdom of [[Tripura]], major sages of India, various Avatars of Vishnu and his cooperation with Shiva, the story of Rama-Sita that is different than the Hindu epic [[Ramayana]].<ref name=ludorocherpadma>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 209-215</ref> Like Skanda Purana, it is a detailed treatise on travel and pilgrimage centers in India.<ref name=ludorocherpadma/><ref>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 281-283 with footnotes on page 553</ref>
+
| 12 || [[Padma Purana|Padma]] || 55,000 shlokas || A large compilation of diverse topics. The north Indian manuscripts of Padma Purana are very different than south Indian versions, and the various recensions in both groups in different languages (Devanagari and Bengali, for example) show major inconsistencies.<ref name="ludorocher2021" /> Describes cosmology, the world and nature of life from the perspective of Vishnu. Discusses festivals, numerous legends, geography of rivers and regions from northwest India to [[Bengal]] to the kingdom of [[Tripura]], major sages of India, various Avatars of Vishnu and his cooperation with Shiva, the story of Rama-Sita that is different than the Hindu epic [[Ramayana]].<ref name="ludorocherpadma">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 209-215</ref> Like Skanda Purana, it is a detailed treatise on travel and pilgrimage centers in India.<ref name="ludorocherpadma" /><ref>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 281-283 with footnotes on page 553</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 13 || [[Shiva Purana|Shiva]] || 24,000 verses || Discusses Shiva, and stories about him.
+
| 13 || [[Shiva Purana|Shiva]] || 24,000 shlokas || Discusses Shiva, and stories about him.
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 14 || [[Skanda Purana|Skanda]] || 81,100 verses || Describes the birth of Skanda (or Karthikeya), son of Shiva. The longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage guide, containing geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends, parables, hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.<ref name="wendy1">{{Harvnb|Doniger|1993|pp=59–83}}</ref>
+
| 14 || [[Skanda Purana|Skanda]] || 81,100 shlokas || Describes the birth of Skanda (or Karthikeya), son of Shiva. The longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage guide, containing geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends, parables, hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.<ref name="wendy1">{{Harvnb|Doniger|1993|pp=59–83}}</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 15 || [[Vamana Purana|Vamana]]  || 10,000 verses || Describes [[North India]], particularly Himalayan foothills region.
+
| 15 || [[Vamana Purana|Vamana]]  || 10,000 shlokas || Describes [[North India]], particularly Himalayan foothills region.
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 16 || [[Varaha Purana|Varaha]] || 24,000 verses || Primarily Vishnu-related worship manual, with large ''Mahatmya'' sections or travel guide to Mathura and Nepal.<ref name=rchazra96>RC Hazra (1940), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass (1987 Reprint), ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 96-97</ref> Presentation focuses on Varaha as incarnation of Narayana, but rarely uses the terms Krishna or Vasudeva.<ref name=rchazra96/> Many illustrations also involve Shiva and [[Durga]].<ref>{{citation|last=Wilson|first=Horace H.|title=The Vishṅu Purāṅa: a system of Hindu mythology and tradition Volume 1 of 4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Xo-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PR71|year=1864|publisher=Trübner|page=LXXI}}</ref>
+
| 16 || [[Varaha Purana|Varaha]] || 24,000 shlokas || Primarily Vishnu-related worship manual, with large ''Mahatmya'' sections or travel guide to Mathura and Nepal.<ref name="rchazra96">RC Hazra (1940), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass (1987 Reprint), ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 96-97</ref> Presentation focuses on Varaha as incarnation of Narayana, but rarely uses the terms Krishna or Vasudeva.<ref name="rchazra96" /> Many illustrations also involve Shiva and [[Durga]].<ref>{{citation|last=Wilson|first=Horace H.|title=The Vishṅu Purāṅa: a system of Hindu mythology and tradition Volume 1 of 4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Xo-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PR71|year=1864|publisher=Trübner|page=LXXI}}</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 17 || [[Vayu Purana|Vayu]] || 24,000 verses || Possibly the oldest of all Maha Puranas. Some medieval Indian texts call it Vayaviya Purana. Mentioned and studied by [[Al Biruni]], the 11th century Persian visitor to India. Praises Shiva. Discusses rituals, family life, and life stages of a human being. The content in Vayu Purana is also found in Markandeya Purana. Describes south India, particularly modern [[Telangana]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] regions. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name=ludorocher115/>
+
| 17 || [[Vayu Purana|Vayu]] || 24,000 verses || Possibly the oldest of all Maha Puranas. Some medieval Indian texts call it Vayaviya Purana. Mentioned and studied by [[Al Biruni]], the 11th century Persian visitor to India. Praises Shiva. Discusses rituals, family life, and life stages of a human being. The content in Vayu Purana is also found in Markandeya Purana. Describes south India, particularly modern [[Telangana]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] regions. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name="ludorocher115" />
 
|-
 
|-
−
| 18 || [[Vishnu Purana|Vishnu]] || 23,000 verses || One of the most studied and circulated Puranas, it also contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name=ludorocher115/> Better preserved after the 17th century, but exists in inconsistent versions, more ancient pre-15th century versions are very different from modern versions, with some versions discussing Buddhism and Jainism. Some chapters likely composed in Kashmir and Punjab region of South Asia. A Vaishnavism text, focussed on Vishnu.<ref>{{citation|last=Lochtefeld|first=James G.|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6FsB3psOTIC&pg=PA760|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4|page=760}}</ref>
+
| 18 || [[Vishnu Purana|Vishnu]] || 23,000 shlokas || One of the most studied and circulated Puranas, it also contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name="ludorocher115" /> Better preserved after the 17th century, but exists in inconsistent versions, more ancient pre-15th century versions are very different from modern versions, with some versions discussing Buddhism and Jainism. Some chapters likely composed in Kashmir and Punjab region of South Asia. A Vaishnavism text, focussed on Vishnu.<ref>{{citation|last=Lochtefeld|first=James G.|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6FsB3psOTIC&pg=PA760|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4|page=760}}</ref>
−
|}
+
|}The Mahapuranas have also been classified based on a specific deity, although the texts are mixed and revere all gods and goddesses:
−
 
+
{| class="wikitable" |-
−
The Mahapuranas have also been classified based on a specific deity, although the texts are mixed and revere all gods and goddesses:
+
| [[Brahma|Brāhma]]:<ref name="ludorocher2021">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 59-61</ref> || [[Brahma Purana]], [[Padma Purana]]
−
{| class="wikitable"|-
 
−
| [[Brahma|Brāhma]]:<ref name=ludorocher2021>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 59-61</ref> || [[Brahma Purana]], [[Padma Purana]]
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
| [[Surya]]:<ref name=ludorocher2021/> || [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]{{refn|group=note|This text underwent a near complete rewrite in or after 15th/16th century CE, and almost all extant manuscripts are Vaishnava (Krishna) bhakti oriented.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 161-164</ref>}}
+
| [[Surya]]:<ref name="ludorocher2021" /> || [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]
 
|-
 
|-
−
| [[Agni]]:<ref name=ludorocher2021/> || [[Agni Purana]]{{refn|group=note|Like all Puranas, this text underwent extensive revisions and rewrite in its history; the extant manuscripts are predominantly an encyclopedia, and so secular in its discussions of gods and goddesses that scholars have classified as [[Smarta Tradition|Smartism]], [[Shaktism]], [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]] Purana.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 20-22, 134-137</ref>}}
+
| [[Agni]]:<ref name="ludorocher2021" /> || [[Agni Purana]]
 
|-
 
|-
−
| [[Shaiva|Śaiva]]:<ref name=ludorocher2021/> || [[Shiva Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Skanda Purana]], [[Varaha Purana]],{{refn|group=note|name=v1}}{{refn|group=note|name=v2}} [[Vamana Purana|Vāmana Purana]],{{refn|group=note|name=v1|This text is named after a Vishnu avatar, but extant manuscripts praise all gods and goddesses equally with some versions focusing more on Shiva.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 35, 185, 199, 239-242</ref>}} [[Kurma Purana|Kūrma Purana]],{{refn|group=note|name=v1}} [[Matsya Purana]],{{refn|group=note|name=v1}} [[Mārkandeya Purana]],{{refn|group=note|This text includes the famous Devi-Mahatmya, one of the most important Goddess-related text of the [[Shaktism]] tradition in Hinduism.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 191-192</ref>}} [[Bhavishya Purana]], [[Brahmānda Purana]]
+
| [[Shaiva|Śaiva]]:<ref name="ludorocher2021" /> || [[Shiva Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Skanda Purana]], [[Varaha Purana]], [[Vamana Purana|Vāmana Purana]], [[Kurma Purana|Kūrma Purana]], [[Matsya Purana]], [[Mārkandeya Purana]], [[Bhavishya Purana]], [[Brahmānda Purana]]
 
|-
 
|-
−
| [[Vaishnava|Vaiṣṇava]]:<ref name=ludorocher2021/> || [[Vishnu Purana]], [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Nāradeya Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]], [[Vayu Purana]], [[Varaha Purana]]{{refn|group=note|name=v2|Hazra includes this in Vaishnava category.<ref name=rchazra96/>}}
+
| [[Vaishnava|Vaiṣṇava]]:<ref name="ludorocher2021" /> || [[Vishnu Purana]], [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Nāradeya Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]], [[Vayu Purana]], [[Varaha Purana]]
−
|}
+
|}The [[Padma Purana]], Uttara Khanda (236.18-21),<ref>{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=H. H.|authorlink=Horace Hayman Wilson|title=The Vishnu Purana: A system of Hindu mythology and tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgMxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR12|year=1840|publisher=Oriental Translation Fund|page=12}}</ref> itself a Vaishnava Purana, classifies the Puranas in accordance with ''[[Guna|the three gunas]] or qualities''; [[Sattva|truth]], [[Rajas|passion]], and [[Tamas (philosophy)|ignorance]].
−
 
+
{| class="wikitable" |-
−
The [[Padma Purana]], Uttara Khanda (236.18-21),<ref>{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=H. H.|authorlink=Horace Hayman Wilson|title=The Vishnu Purana: A system of Hindu mythology and tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgMxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR12|year=1840|publisher=Oriental Translation Fund|page=12}}</ref> itself a Vaishnava Purana, classifies the Puranas in accordance with ''[[Guna|the three gunas]] or qualities''; [[Sattva|truth]], [[Rajas|passion]], and [[Tamas (philosophy)|ignorance]].
+
| [[Sattva]]<br>("truth") || [[Vishnu Purana]], [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Naradeya Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]], [[Padma Purana]], [[Varaha Purana]]
−
 
 
−
{| class="wikitable"|-
 
−
| [[Sattva]]<br>("truth"){{refn|group=note|name=srt|Scholars consider the ''Sattva-Rajas-Tamas'' classification as "entirely fanciful" and there is nothing in each text that actually justifies this classification.<ref name=ludorocher2021/>}} || [[Vishnu Purana]], [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Naradeya Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]], [[Padma Purana]], [[Varaha Purana]]
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
| [[Rajas]]<br>("passion"){{refn|group=note|name=srt}} || [[Brahmanda Purana]], [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]], [[Markandeya Purana]], [[Bhavishya Purana]], [[Vamana Purana]], [[Brahma Purana]]
+
| [[Rajas]]<br>("passion") || [[Brahmanda Purana]], [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]], [[Markandeya Purana]], [[Bhavishya Purana]], [[Vamana Purana]], [[Brahma Purana]]
 
|-
 
|-
−
| [[Tamas (philosophy)|Tamas]]<br>("ignorance"){{refn|group=note|name=srt}} || [[Matsya Purana]], [[Kurma Purana|Kurma purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Shiva Purana]], [[Skanda Purana]], [[Agni Purana]]
+
| [[Tamas (philosophy)|Tamas]]<br>("ignorance") || [[Matsya Purana]], [[Kurma Purana|Kurma purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Shiva Purana]], [[Skanda Purana]], [[Agni Purana]]
−
|}
+
|}All major Puranas contain sections on [[Devi]] (goddesses) and [[Tantra]], but of these the six most significant ones are: [[Markandeya Purana]], [[Shiva Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]], [[Agni Purana]] and [[Padma Purana]].<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 113-114, 153-154, 161, 167-169, 171-174, 182-187, 190-194, 210, 225-227, 242</ref>
−
 
 
−
All major Puranas contain sections on [[Devi]] (goddesses) and [[Tantra]], but of these the six most significant ones are: [[Markandeya Purana]], [[Shiva Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]], [[Agni Purana]] and [[Padma Purana]].<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 113-114, 153-154, 161, 167-169, 171-174, 182-187, 190-194, 210, 225-227, 242</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Upapuranas===
 
−
[[File:Ashta-Matrika.jpg|thumb|300px|The Goddess [[Durga]] Leading the Eight [[Matrikas]] in Battle Against the Demon [[Raktabija]], Folio from  [[Devi Mahatmya]]m, Markandeya Purana.]]
 
−
{{main|Upapurana}}
 
−
The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, "a Mahapurana is well known, and that what is less well known becomes an Upapurana".<ref name="Ludo Rocher 1986 page 63">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 63</ref> Rocher states that the distinction between Mahapurana and Upapurana is ahistorical, there is little corroborating evidence that either were more or less known, and that "the term Mahapurana occurs rarely in Purana literature, and is probably of late origin."<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 68</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The ''Upapuranas'' are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. They include among many: Sanat-kumara, [[Narasimha Purana|Narasimha]], Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, [[Kapila Purana|Kapila]], Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, [[Kalika Purana|Kalika]], [[Samba Purana|Samba]], Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, [[Ganesha Purana|Ganesha]], [[Mudgala Purana|Mudgala]], and Hamsa, with only a few having been critically edited.<ref>R. C. Hazra, ''Studies in the Upapuranas, vol. I'', Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1958. ''Studies in the Upapuranas, vol. II'', Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1979. ''Studies in Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs'', Delhi, Banarsidass, 1975. Ludo Rocher, ''The Puranas - A History of Indian Literature Vol. II'', fasc. 3, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1986.</ref><ref>''`Verbal Narratives: Performance and Gender of the Padma Purana'', by T.N. Sankaranarayana in {{Harvnb|Kaushal|2001|pp=225–234}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to [[Ganesha]].<ref name=Thapan>{{Harvnb|Thapan|1997|p=304}}</ref><ref>[http://gurjari.net/ico/Mystica/html/purana.htm Purana at Gurjari]</ref> The [[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]], which extols the goddess [[Durga]], has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Markandeya Purana) a basic text for [[Devi]] worshipers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mackenzie|1990}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Sthala Puranas===
 
−
This corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of particular Tamil Shiva temples or shrines. There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in [[vernacular]]s, some with Sanskrit versions as well. The 275 Shiva Sthalams of the continent have puranas for each, famously glorified in the [[Tamil literature]] ''[[Tevaram]].'' Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by [[David Dean Shulman]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Shulman|1980}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Skanda Purana===
 
−
The Skanda Purana is the largest Purana with 81,000 verses,<ref name=stephenknapp44>Stephen Knapp (2005), The Heart of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0595350759, pages 44-45</ref> named after deity [[Kartikeya|Skanda]], the son of Shiva and Uma, and brother of deity Ganesha.<ref>Yves Bonnefoy and Wendy Doniger (1993), Asian Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226064567, pages 92-95</ref> The mythological part of the text weaves the stories of Shiva and Vishnu, along with Parvati, Rama, Krishna and other major gods in Hindu pantheon.<ref name=stephenknapp44/> In Chapter 1.8, it declares,
 
−
 
 
−
{{Quote|
 
−
Vishnu is nobody but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.
 
−
|Skanda Purana|1.8.20-21<ref>Gregor Maehle (2009), Ashtanga Yoga, New World, ISBN 978-1577316695, page 17</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/SriSkandaPuranam-SankaraSamhitaPart1#page/n31/mode/2up Skanda Purana] Shankara Samhita Part 1, Verses 1.8.20-21 (Sanskrit)</ref>}}
 
−
 
 
−
The Skanda Purana has received renewed scholarship interest ever since the late 20th-century discovery of a [[Nepal]]ese Skanda Purana manuscript dated to be from early 9th-century. This discovery established that Skanda Purana existed by the 9th century. However, a comparison shows that the 9th-century document is entirely different than versions of Skanda Purana that have been circulating in South Asia since the colonial era.<ref name="R Andriaensen 1994 pages 325-331">R Andriaensen et al (1994), Towards a critical edition of the Skandapurana, Indo-Iranian Journal, Vol. 37, pages 325-331</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==Content==
 
−
[[File:A Thailand representation of Hindu mythology on cosmos creation.jpg|thumb|300px|The Puranas include cosmos creation myths such as the ''Samudra Manthan'' (churning of the ocean). These ideas spread to southeast Asia. It is represented in the [[Angkor Wat]] temple complex of [[Cambodia]], and at Bangkok airport, [[Thailand]] (above).]]
 
−
Several Puranas, such as the Matysa Purana,<ref>''Matsya Purana'' 53.65</ref> list "five characteristics" or "five signs" of a Purana.<ref name=oliverleaman437/> These are called the ''Pancha Lakshana'' ( {{IAST|pañcalakṣaṇa}}), and are topics covered by a Purana:<ref name=oliverleaman437/><ref name=Rao>{{Harvnb|Rao|1993|pp=85–100}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|2009|p = 248 }}</ref>
 
−
#''Sarga'': [[cosmogony]]
 
−
#''Pratisarga'': cosmogony and [[cosmology]]<ref>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 48-62</ref>
 
−
#''Vamśa'': [[genealogy]] of the gods, sages and kings<ref>Vayu Purana 1. 31-2.</ref>
 
−
#''Manvañtara'': cosmic cycles,<ref>RC Hazra (1987), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804227, page 4</ref> history of the world during the time of one patriarch
 
−
#''Vamśānucaritam'': legends during the times of various kings.
 
−
 
 
−
A few Puranas, such as the most popular Bhagavata Purana, add five more characteristics to expand this list to ten:<ref name=gregbailey440/>
 
−
#<li value="6">''Utaya'': [[karma|karmic]] links between the deities, sages, kings and the various living beings</li>
 
−
#''Ishanukatha'': tales about a god
 
−
#''Nirodha'': finale, cessation
 
−
#''Mukti'': [[moksha]], spiritual liberation
 
−
#''Ashraya'': refuge
 
−
 
 
−
These five or ten sections weave in biographies, myths, geography, medicine, astronomy, Hindu temples, pilgrimage to distant real places, rites of passage, charity, ethics,<ref>Gopal Gupta (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 63-75</ref> duties, rights, dharma, divine intervention in cosmic and human affairs, love stories,<ref>Graham Schweig (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 117-132</ref> festivals, theosophy and philosophy.<ref name=oliverleaman437/><ref name=gregorybailey/><ref name=ludorocher/> The Puranas link gods to men, both generally and in religious [[bhakti]] context.<ref name=gregbailey440/> Here the Puranic literature follows a general pattern. It starts with introduction, a future devotee is described as ignorant about the god yet curious, the devotee learns about the god and this begins the spiritual realization, the text then describes instances of god's grace which begins to persuade and convert the devotee, the devotee then shows devotion which is rewarded by the god, the reward is appreciated by the devotee and in return performs actions to express further devotion.<ref name=gregbailey440>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 440-443</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Over time, states Om Prakash, chapters and verses from one Purana were transferred or interpolated into another Purana. Similarly, texts from Vedic literature, Smritis and Sutras were incorporated into the Puranas, older verses were replaced with new ones, thereby creating manuscripts with the same name but inconsistent content.<ref name=rajhazra6>RC Hazra (1987), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 6-9 with footnotes</ref> The content about kings, history of various people, sages and kingdoms are in part based on real events, in part [[hagiography]], and in part expansive imagination or fabrication.<ref name=rajhazra6/> The high degree of inconsistency and manuscript corruption occurred particularly from the 12th century onwards, evidenced by cross referencing across the texts; Matsya Purana, for example, stated that Kurma Purana has 18,000 verses, while Agni Purana asserts the same text has 8,000 verses, and Naradiya attests that Kurma manuscript has 17,000 verses.<ref name=rajhazra6/>
 
−
 
 
−
Along with inconsistencies, common ideas are found throughout the corpus but it is not possible to trace the lines of influence of one Purana upon another so the corpus is best viewed as a synchronous whole.<ref name="flood">{{Harvnb|Flood|1996|p = 359 }}</ref> An example of similar myths woven across the Puranas, but in different versions, include the ''lingabhava'' – the "apparition of the [[linga]]". The story features Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, the three major deities of Hinduism, who get together, debate, and after various versions of the story, in the end the glory of Shiva is established by the apparition of linga. This myth, state Bonnefoy and Doniger, appears in Vayu Purana 1.55, Brahmanda Purana 1.26, Shiva Purana's Rudra Samhita Sristi Khanda 15, Skanda Purana's chapters 1.3, 1.16 and 3.1, and other Puranas.<ref name=yveswendy38>Yves Bonnefoy and Wendy Doniger (1993), Asian Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226064567, pages 38-39</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The texts are in Sanskrit as well as regional languages,<ref name=johncort185/><ref name=gregorybailey/> and almost entirely in narrative metric couplets.<ref name=merriam/>
 
−
 
 
−
===Symbolism and layers of meaning===
 
−
The texts use ideas, concepts and even names that are symbolic.<ref name=yveswendy38/> The words can interpreted literally, and at an [[axiology|axiological]] level.<ref>Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 130-132</ref> The [[Vishnu Purana]], for example, recites a myth where the names of the characters are loaded with symbolism and axiological significance. The myth is as follows,
 
−
 
 
−
{{Quote|
 
−
The progeny of [[Dharma]] by the daughters of Daksha were as follows: by Sraddhá (devotion) he had [[Kama]] (desire); by Lakshmí (wealth, prosperity), was born Darpa (pride); by Dhriti (courage), the progeny was [[Niyama]] (precept); by Tusht́i (inner comfort), [[Santosha]] (contentment); by Pusht́i (opulence), the progeny was Lobha (cupidity, greed); by Medhá (wisdom, experience), Sruta (sacred tradition); by Kriyá (hard work, labour), the progeny were Dańd́a, Naya, and Vinaya (justice, politics, and education); by Buddhi (intellect), Bodha (understanding); by Lajjá (shame, humility), Vinaya (good behaviour); by Vapu (body, strength), Vyavasaya (perseverance). Shanti (peace) gave birth to [[Forgiveness#Hinduism|Kshama]] (forgiveness); Siddhi (excellence) to Sukha (enjoyment); and Kírtti (glorious speech) gave birth to Yasha (reputation). These were the sons of Dharma; one of whom, Kama (love, emotional fulfillment) had baby Hersha (joy) by his wife Nandi (delight).
 
−
 
 
−
The wife of Adharma (vice, wrong, evil) was Hinsá (violence), on whom he begot a son Anrita (falsehood), and a daughter Nikriti (immorality): they intermarried, and had two sons, Bhaya (fear) and Naraka (hell); and twins to them, two daughters, Máyá (deceit) and Vedaná (torture), who became their wives. The son of Bhaya (fear) and Máyá (deceit) was the destroyer of living creatures, or Mrityu (death); and Dukha (pain) was the offspring of Naraka (hell) and Vedaná (torture). The children of Mrityu were Vyádhi (disease), Jará (decay), Soka (sorrow), Trishńa (greediness), and Krodha (wrath). These are all called the inflictors of misery, and are characterised as the progeny of Vice (Adharma). They are all without wives, without posterity, without the faculty to procreate; they perpetually operate as causes of the destruction of this world. On the contrary, Daksha and the other Rishis, the elders of mankind, tend perpetually to influence its renovation: whilst the Manus and their sons, the heroes endowed with mighty power, and treading in the path of truth, as constantly contribute to its preservation.
 
−
|Vishnu Purana|Chapter 7, Translated by [[Horace Hayman Wilson]]<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp041.htm Vishnu Purana] Chapter 7</ref>}}
 
−
 
 
−
===Puranas as a complement to the Vedas===
 
−
[[File:Krishna and the Gopis (herdsmaids).jpg|thumb|The mythology in the Puranas has inspired many [[relief]]s and sculptures found in [[Hindu temple]]s.<ref>Sara Schastok (1997), The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004069411, pages 77-79, 88</ref> The legend behind the Krishna and Gopis relief above is described in the Bhagavata Purana.<ref>Edwin Bryant (2007), Krishna : A Sourcebook: A Sourcebook, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195148923, pages 111-119</ref>]]
 
−
The Puranic literature, stated [[Max Muller]], is independent, has changed often over its history, and has little relation to the Vedic age or the Vedic literature.<ref name=ludorocher13>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 13-16</ref> Some scholars suggest that the Puranas claim a link to the Vedas but in name only, not in substance.<ref name=ludorocher13/> Yet a third group of scholars state that the link is there, at least in spiritual themes and theology. The Puranas aim to complement the Vedic literature, interpret its theories, and help spread the ideas therein.<ref name=ludorocher13/><ref>Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791416402, pages 95-97</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Puranas as encyclopedias===
 
−
The Puranas, states Kees Bolle, are best seen as "vast, often encyclopedic" works from ancient and medieval India.<ref>Kee Bolle (1963), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062068 Reflections on a Puranic Passage], History of Religions, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Winter, 1963), pages 286-291</ref> Some of them, such as the Agni Purana and Matsya Purana, cover all sorts of subjects, dealing with – states Rocher – "anything and everything", from fiction to facts, from practical recipes to abstract philosophy, from geographic ''Mahatmyas'' (travel guides){{Sfn|Ariel Glucklich|2008|p=146, '''Quote:''' The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called ''mahatmyas''}} to cosmetics, from festivals to astronomy.<ref name=gregorybailey/><ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 1-5, 12-21, 79-80, 96-98; Quote: '''These are the true encyclopedic Puranas. in which detached chapters or sections, dealing with any imaginable subject, follow one another, without connection or transition. Three Puranas especially belong to this category: Matsya, Garuda and above all Agni.'''</ref> Like encyclopedias, they were updated to remain current with their times, by a process called ''Upabrimhana''.<ref>Ronald Inden (2000), Querying the Medieval : Texts and the History of Practices in South Asia, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124309, pages 94-95</ref> However, some of the 36 major and minor Puranas are more focussed handbooks, such as the Skanda Purana, Padma Purana and Bhavishya Purana which deal primarily with ''Tirtha Mahatmyas'' (pilgrimage travel guides),{{Sfn|Ariel Glucklich|2008|p=146, '''Quote:''' The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called ''mahatmyas''}} while Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana focus more on history, mythology and legends.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 78-79</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Puranas as religious texts===
 
−
The colonial era scholars of Puranas studied them primarily as religious texts, with Vans Kennedy declaring in 1837, that any other use of these documents would be disappointing.<ref name=ludorocher104/> [[John Zephaniah Holwell]], who from 1732 onwards spent 30 years in India and was elected Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in 1767, described the Puranas as "18 books of divine words".<ref name=ursapp/> British officials and researchers such as Holwell, states Urs App, were [[orientalism|orientalist]] scholars who introduced a distorted picture of Indian literature and Puranas as "sacred scriptures of India" in 1767. Holwell, states Urs App, "presented it as the opinion of knowledgeable Indians; But it is abundantly clear that no knowledgeable Indian would ever have said anything remotely similar".<ref name=ursapp>Urs App (2010), The Birth of Orientalism, University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 978-0812242614, pages 331, 323-334</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Modern scholarship doubts this 19th-century premise.<ref>Jan Gonda (1975), Selected Studies: Indo-European linguistics, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004042285, pages 51-86</ref> Ludo Rocher, for example, states,
 
−
 
 
−
{{Quote|
 
−
I want to stress the fact that it would be irresponsible and highly misleading to speak of or pretend to describe the religion of the Puranas.
 
−
|[[Ludo Rocher]]|The Puranas<ref name=ludorocher104>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 104-106 with footnotes</ref>}}
 
−
 
 
−
The study of Puranas as a religious text remains a controversial subject.<ref>Ronald Inden (2000), Querying the Medieval : Texts and the History of Practices in South Asia, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124309, pages 87-98</ref> Some Indologists, in colonial tradition of scholarship, treat the Puranic texts as scriptures or useful source of religious contents.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 19-20</ref> Other scholars, such as Ronald Inden, consider this approach "essentialist and antihistorical" because the Purana texts changed often over time and over distance, and the underlying presumption of they being religious texts is that those changes are "Hinduism expressed by a religious leader or philosopher", or "expressiveness of Hindu mind", or "society at large", when the texts and passages are literary works and "individual geniuses of their authors".<ref>Ronald Inden (2000), Querying the Medieval : Texts and the History of Practices in South Asia, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124309, pages 95-96</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
====Jainism====
 
−
 
 
−
The Jaina Puranas are like Hindu Puranas encyclopedic epics in style, and are considered as ''anuyogas'' (expositions), but they are not considered [[Jain Agamas]] and do not have scripture or quasi-canonical status in Jainism tradition.<ref name=johncort185/> They are best described, states John Cort, as post-scripture literary corpus based upon themes found in Jain scriptures.<ref name=johncort185/>
 
−
 
 
−
====Sectarian, pluralistic or monotheistic theme====
 
−
Scholars have debated whether the Puranas should be categorized as sectarian, or non-partisan, or monotheistic religious texts.<ref name=ludorochersect/><ref name=bryant11/> Different Puranas describe a number of stories where Brahma, VIshnu and Shiva compete for supremacy.<ref name=bryant11/> In some Puranas, such as [[Devi Bhagavata]], the Goddess Devi joins the competition and ascends for the position of being Supreme. Further, most Puranas emphasize legends around one who is either Shiva, or Vishnu, or Devi.<ref name=ludorochersect/> The texts thus appear to be sectarian. However, states Edwin Bryant, while these legends sometimes appear to be partisan, they are merely acknowledging the obvious question of whether one or the other is more important, more powerful. In the final analysis, all Puranas weave their legends to celebrate pluralism, and accept the other two and all gods in Hindu pantheon as personalized form but equivalent essence of the Ultimate Reality called [[Brahman]].<ref>EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, BRILL Academic, ISBN 978-9004016125, pages 150-153</ref><ref>Barbara Holdrege (2015), Bhakti and Embodiment, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415670708, pages 113-114</ref> The Puranas are not spiritually partisan, states Bryant, but "accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too".<ref name=bryant11>Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, ISBN 978-0141913377, pages 10-12</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
{{Quote|
 
−
[The Puranic text] merely affirm that the other deity is to be considered a derivative manifestation of their respective deity, or in the case of Devi, the ''Shakti'', or power of the male divinity. The term monotheism, if applied to the Puranic tradition, needs to be understood in the context of a supreme being, whether understood as Vishnu, Shiva or Devi, who can manifest himself or herself as other supreme beings.
 
−
|Edwin Bryant|Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana<ref name=bryant11/>}}
 
−
 
 
−
Ludo Rocher, in his review of Puranas as sectarian texts, states, "even though the Puranas contain sectarian materials, their sectarianism should not be interpreted as exclusivism in favor of one god to the detriment of all others".<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 23 with footnote 35</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Puranas as historical texts===
 
−
Despite the diversity and wealth of manuscripts from ancient and medieval India that have survived into the modern times, there is a paucity of historical data in them.<ref name=ludorocher115>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 115-121 with footnotes</ref> Neither the author name nor the year of their composition were recorded or preserved, over the centuries, as the documents were copied from one generation to another. This paucity tempted 19th-century scholars to use the Puranas as a source of chronological and historical information about India or Hinduism.<ref name=ludorocher115/> This effort was, after some effort, either summarily rejected by some scholars, or become controversial, because the Puranas include fables and fiction, and the information within and across the Puranas was found to be inconsistent.<ref name=ludorocher115/>
 
−
 
 
−
In early 20th-century, some regional records were found to be more consistent, such as for the Hindu dynasties in [[Telangana]], Andhra Pradesh. Basham, as well as Kosambi have questioned whether lack of inconsistency is sufficient proof of reliability and [[historicity]].<ref name=ludorocher115/> More recent scholarship has attempted to, with limited success, states Ludo Rocher, use the Puranas for historical information in combination with independent corroborating evidence, such as "epigraphy, archaeology, Buddhist literature, Jaina literature, non-Puranic literature, Islamic records, and records preserved outside India by travelers to or from India in medieval times such as in China, Myanmar and Indonesia".<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 121-127 with footnotes</ref><ref>L Srinivasan (2000), [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1567807 Historicity of the Indian mythology : Some observations], Man in India, Vol. 80, No. 1-2, pages 89-106</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==Manuscripts==
 
−
[[File:Devimahatmya Sanskrit MS Nepal 11c.jpg|thumb|300px|An 11th-century Nepalese palm-leaf manuscript in Sanskrit of Devimahatmya (Markandeya Purana).]]
 
−
The study of Puranas manuscripts has been challenging because they are highly inconsistent.<ref name=ludorocher59m>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 59-67</ref><ref>Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, pages 141-142</ref> This is true for all Mahapuranas and Upapuranas.<ref name=ludorocher59m/> Most editions of Puranas, in use particularly by Western scholars, are "based on one manuscript or on a few manuscripts selected at random", even though divergent manuscripts with the same title exist. Scholars have long acknowledged the existence of Purana manuscripts that "seem to differ much from printed edition", and it is unclear which one is accurate, and whether conclusions drawn from the randomly or cherrypicked printed version were universal over geography or time.<ref name=ludorocher59m/> This problem is most severe with Purana manuscripts of the same title, but in regional languages such as Tamil, Telugu, Bengali and others which have largely been ignored.<ref name=ludorocher59m/>
 
−
 
 
−
{{Quote|
 
−
Modern scholarship noticed all these facts. It recognized that the extent of the genuine Agni Purana was not the same at all times and in all places, and that it varied with the difference in time and locality. (...) This shows that the text of the Devi Purana was not the same everywhere but differed considerably in different provinces. Yet, one failed to draw the logical conclusion: besides the version or versions of puranas that appear in our [surviving] manuscripts, and fewer still in our [printed] editions, there have been numerous other versions, under the same titles, but which either have remained unnoticed or have been irreparably lost.
 
−
|Ludo Rocher|The Puranas<ref name="Ludo Rocher 1986 page 63">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 63</ref><ref>Rajendra Hazra (1956), Discovery of the genuine Agneya-purana, Journal of the Oriental Institute Baroda, Vol. 4-5, pages 411-416</ref>}}
 
−
 
 
−
===Chronology===
 
−
Newly discovered Puranas manuscripts from the medieval centuries has attracted scholarly attention and the conclusion that the Puranic literature has gone through slow redaction and text corruption over time, as well as sudden deletion of numerous chapters and its replacement with new content to an extent that the currently circulating Puranas are entirely different than those that existed before 11th century, or 16th century.<ref name=dominicifixvii/>
 
−
 
 
−
For example, a newly discovered palm-leaf manuscript of Skanda Purana in [[Nepal]] has been dated to be from 810 CE, but is entirely different than versions of Skanda Purana that have been circulating in South Asia since the colonial era.<ref name="R Andriaensen 1994 pages 325-331"/><ref name=dominicifixvii>Dominic Goodall (2009), Parākhyatantram, Vol 98, Publications de l'Institut Français d'Indologie, ISBN 978-2855396422, pages xvi-xvii</ref> Further discoveries of four more manuscripts, each different, suggest that document has gone through major redactions twice, first likely before the 12th century, and the second very large change sometime in the 15th-16th century for unknown reasons.<ref name=kengoharimoto/> The different versions of manuscripts of Skanda Purana suggest that "minor" redactions, interpolations and corruption of the ideas in the text over time.<ref name=kengoharimoto>Kengo Harimoto (2004), in Origin and Growth of the Purāṇic Text Corpus (Editor: Hans Bakker), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820494, pages 41-64</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Rocher states that the compositions date of each Purana remains a contested issue.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|p=249}}{{Sfn|Gregory Bailey|2003|pp=139-141, 154-156}} Dimmitt and van Buitenen state that each of the Puranas manuscripts is encyclopedic in style, and it is difficult to ascertain when, where, why and by whom these were written:{{Sfn|Dimmitt|van Buitenen|2012|p=5}}
 
−
 
 
−
{{Quote|
 
−
As they exist today, the Puranas are a stratified literature. Each titled work consists of material that has grown by numerous accretions in successive historical eras. Thus no Purana has a single date of composition. (...) It is as if they were libraries to which new volumes have been continuously added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf, but randomly.
 
−
|Cornelia Dimmitt and [[J. A. B. van Buitenen|J.A.B. van Buitenen]]|''Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas''{{Sfn|Dimmitt|van Buitenen|2012|p=5}}}}
 
−
 
 
−
===Forgeries===
 
−
Many of the extant manuscripts were written on [[palm leaf manuscript|palm leaf]] or copied during the British India colonial era, some in the 19th-century.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=49-53}}<ref name="Powell2010p128"/> The scholarship on various Puranas, has suffered from frequent forgeries, states [[Ludo Rocher]], where liberties in the transmission of Puranas were normal and those who copied older manuscripts replaced words or added new content to fit the theory that the colonial scholars were keen on publishing.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=49-53}}<ref name="Powell2010p128">{{cite book|author=Avril Ann Powell|title=Scottish Orientalists and India: The Muir Brothers, Religion, Education and Empire|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KOnS1X8a528C|year=2010|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|isbn=978-1-84383-579-0|pages=130, 128–134, 87–90}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Translations===
 
−
[[Horace Hayman Wilson]] published one of the earliest English translations of one version of the Vishnu Purana in 1840.<ref>HH Wilson (1840), [https://archive.org/stream/worksbylatehorace06wils#page/n5/mode/2up Vishnu Purana] Trubner and Co., Reprinted in 1864</ref> The same manuscript, and Wilson's translation, was reinterpreted by Manmatha Nath Dutt, and published in 1896.<ref>MN Dutt (1896), [https://archive.org/stream/Vishnupurana-English-MnDutt#page/n1/mode/2up Vishnupurana] Eylsium Press, Calcutta</ref> The All India Kashiraj Trust has published editions of the Puranas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mittal|2004|p=657}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Maridas Poullé (Mariyadas Pillai) published a French translation from a Tamil version of the Bhagavata Purana in 1788, and this was widely distributed in Europe becoming an introduction to the 18th-century Hindu culture and Hinduism to many Europeans during the colonial era. Poullé republished a different translation of the same text as ''Le Bhagavata'' in 1795, from [[Pondicherry]].<ref>[[Jean Filliozat]] (1968), Tamil Studies in French Indology, in Tamil Studies Abroad, Xavier S Thani Nayagam, pages 1-14</ref> A copy of Poullé translation is preserved in [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]], Paris.
 
−
 
 
 
==Influence==
 
==Influence==
−
[[File:Bharathanatyam By Ranjitha.jpg|thumb|The Puranas have had a large cultural impact on [[Hindu]]s, from festivals to diverse arts. [[Bharata natyam]] (above) is inspired in part by Bhagavata Purana.<ref name=katherinezubko>Katherine Zubko (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201</ref>]]
+
Om Prakash states the Puranas served as efficient medium for cultural exchange and popular education in ancient and medieval India.<ref name="omprakash33" /> These texts adopted, explained and integrated regional deities such as Pashupata in Vayu Purana, Sattva in Vishnu Purana, Dattatreya in Markendeya Purana, Bhojakas in Bhavishya Purana.<ref name="omprakash33" /> Further, states Prakash, they dedicated chapters to "secular subjects such as poetics, dramaturgy, grammar, lexicography, astronomy, war, politics, architecture, geography and medicine as in Agni Purana, perfumery and lapidary arts in Garuda Purana, painting, sculpture and other arts in Vishnudharmottara Purana".<ref name="omprakash33">Om Prakash (2004), Cultural History of India, New Age, ISBN 978-8122415872, pages 33-34</ref>
−
The most significant influence of the Puranas genre of Indian literature have been, state scholars and particularly Indian scholars,<ref name=gregbailey442/> in "culture synthesis", in weaving and integrating the diverse beliefs from ritualistic rites of passage to Vedantic philosophy, from fictional legends to factual history, from individual introspective yoga to social celebratory festivals, from temples to pilgrimage, from one god to another, from goddesses to tantra, from the old to the new.<ref>Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, pages 162-167</ref> These have been dynamic open texts, composed socially, over time. This, states Greg Bailey, may have allowed the Hindu culture to "preserve the old while constantly coming to terms with the new", and "if they are anything, they are records of cultural adaptation and transformation" over the last 2,000 years.<ref name=gregbailey442>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 442-443</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The Puranic literature, suggests Khanna, influenced "acculturation and accommodation" of a diversity of people, with different languages and from different economic classes, across different kingdoms and traditions, catalyzing the syncretic "cultural mosaic of Hinduism".<ref name=champa48>R Champakalakshmi (2012), Cultural History of Medieval India (Editor: M Khanna), Berghahn, ISBN 978-8187358305, pages 48-50</ref> They helped influence cultural pluralism in India, and are a literary record thereof.<ref name=champa48/>
 
−
 
 
−
Om Prakash states the Puranas served as efficient medium for cultural exchange and popular education in ancient and medieval India.<ref name=omprakash33/> These texts adopted, explained and integrated regional deities such as Pashupata in Vayu Purana, Sattva in Vishnu Purana, Dattatreya in Markendeya Purana, Bhojakas in Bhavishya Purana.<ref name=omprakash33/> Further, states Prakash, they dedicated chapters to "secular subjects such as poetics, dramaturgy, grammar, lexicography, astronomy, war, politics, architecture, geography and medicine as in Agni Purana, perfumery and lapidary arts in Garuda Purana, painting, sculpture and other arts in Vishnudharmottara Purana".<ref name=omprakash33>Om Prakash (2004), Cultural History of India, New Age, ISBN 978-8122415872, pages 33-34</ref>
 
−
 
 
 
;Indian Arts
 
;Indian Arts
−
The cultural influence of the Puranas extended to Indian classical arts, such as songs, dance culture such as [[Bharata Natyam]] in south India<ref name=katherinezubko/> and [[Rasa Lila]] in northeast India,<ref>Guy Beck (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201</ref> plays and recitations.<ref>Ilona Wilczewska (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 202-220</ref>
+
The cultural influence of the Puranas extended to Indian classical arts, such as songs, dance culture such as [[Bharata Natyam]] in south India<ref name="katherinezubko">Katherine Zubko (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201</ref> and [[Rasa Lila]] in northeast India,<ref>Guy Beck (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201</ref> plays and recitations.<ref>Ilona Wilczewska (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 202-220</ref>
−
 
+
==References==
−
;Festivals
+
<references />
−
The myths, lunar calendar schedule, rituals and celebrations of major Hindu cultural festivities such as [[Holi]], [[Diwali]] and [[Durga Puja]] are in the Puranic literature.<ref>A Whitney Sanford (2006), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity (Editor: Guy Beck), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791464168, pages 91-94</ref><ref>Tracy Pintchman (2005), Guests at God's Wedding: Celebrating Kartik among the Women of Benares, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791465950, pages 60-63, with notes on 210-211</ref>
+
[[Category:Puranas]]
−
 
+
[[Category:Vaidika Vangamaya]]
−
==Notes==
 
−
{{reflist|group=note}}
 
−
 
 
−
== References==
 
−
{{Reflist|30em}}
 
−
 
 
−
===Cited sources===
 
−
* {{cite book|author=Gregory Bailey|editor=Arvind Sharma|title=The Study of Hinduism (Chapter: The Puranas) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=npCKSUUQYEIC|year=2003|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-449-7|ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | last = Dimmitt | first = Cornelia | first2 = J. A. B.  |last2 = van Buitenen | title = Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=re7CR2jKn3QC| publisher = Temple University Press (1st Edition: 1977) | year = 2012 | isbn =978-1-4399-0464-0  |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy (editor) |authorlink=Wendy Doniger |coauthors= |title={{IAST|Purāṇa}} Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts |year=1993 |publisher=State University of New York |location=Albany, New York |isbn= 0-7914-1382-9 |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | last = Hardy | first = Friedhelm | title = Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India | ISBN = 0-19-564916-8 | year = 2001  |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | last = Flood | first = Gavin | title = An Introduction to Hinduism | year = 1996 | publisher = Cambridge University Press  | isbn = 0-521-43304-5  |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | last = Johnson |first = W.J. |title = A Dictionary of Hinduism | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2009 | ISBN = 978-0-19-861025-0  |ref=harv}}
 
−
*{{cite book | last = Kaushal | first = Molly (editor) | title = Chanted Narratives - The Katha Vachana Tradition | ISBN = 81-246-0182-8 | year = 2001 |ref=harv}}
 
−
*{{cite book|author=Ariel Glucklich|title=The Strides of Vishnu : Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC| year=2008| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-971825-2 |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | last = Mackenzie | first = C Brown | title = The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa | ISBN = 0-7914-0363-7 |year = 1990 | publisher = State University of New York Press  |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | first = Sushil | last = Mittal | title = The Hindu World | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-415-21527-5 |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | last = Moghe | first = S. G. (editor) | title = Professor Kane's contribution to Dharmasastra literature | year = 1997 | location = New Delhi | publisher = D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. | ISBN = 81-246-0075-9  |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier|authorlink=Monier Monier-Williams |coauthors= |title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary |year= 1899|publisher=Oxford University Press  |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | last = Pargiter | first = F. E. | title = Ancient Indian historical tradition | others = Original publisher Oxford University Press, London | publisher = Motilal Banarasidass | origyear = 1922 | year = 1962 | location = Delhi | oclc = 1068416  |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | last = Rao | first = Velcheru Narayana | title = Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts | chapter = Purana as Brahminic Ideology | isbn = 0-7914-1381-0 | editor = Doniger Wendy | year = 1993 | publisher = State University of New York Press | location = Albany  |ref=harv}}
 
−
*{{Cite book|first=Ludo |last=Rocher| year= 1986| authorlink= Ludo Rocher| title= The Puranas| publisher= Otto Harrassowitz Verlag| isbn= 978-3447025225|ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | authorlink = David Dean Shulman | last = Shulman | first = David Dean | title = Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition | ISBN = 0-691-06415-6 | year = 1980  |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book | first = Nagendra Kumar | last = Singh | title = Encyclopaedia of Hinduism | year = 1997 |ISBN = 81-7488-168-9 |ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book |last=Thapan |first=Anita Raina |title=Understanding {{IAST|Gaṇapati}}: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult |year=1997 |publisher=Manohar Publishers |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7304-195-4  |ref=harv}}
 
−
 
 
−
==External links==
 
−
{{Wikiquote}}
 
−
*[http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm#Pur GRETIL] (uni-goettingen.de)
 
−
 
 
−
===Translations===
 
−
*[http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.b4023049 Agni Purana (in English)], Volume 2, MN Dutt (Translator), Hathi Trust Archives
 
−
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/index.htm Vishnu Purana] H.H. Wilson
 
−
* [https://archive.org/stream/Vishnupurana-English-MnDutt#page/n15/mode/2up Vishnu Purana], MN Dutt
 
−
* [https://archive.org/stream/BrahmandaPurana/BrahmandaPuI#page/n1/mode/2up Brahmanda Purana], GV Tagare
 
−
 
 
−
{{Puranas}}
 
−
{{Hindudharma}}
 
−
{{Indian Philosophy}}
 
−
 
 
−
[[Category:Hindu texts]]
 
−
[[Category:Puranas|*]]
 
−
[[Category:Asian chronicles]]
 

Latest revision as of 17:51, 30 May 2021

ToBeEdited.png
 This article needs editing.

Add and improvise the content from reliable sources.

Puranas (Samskrit : पुराणानि) are a large number of Bharatiya texts, based on the Vedas and Vedangas, which influence the lifestyle of people of Bharatavarsha. References to Puranas and Itihasas in the Vedas and Vedangas show the significance and ancientness of these texts. They are eighteen in number and are associated with the Upapuranas. They describe a wide variety of aspects related to the bharatiya jivana vidhana namely ceremonies, danas, festivals, cultural aspects, history, geographical location, tattvas and siddhantas of Brahman, yajnas, dharmas, lineages of rulers, origin of creation, numerous ancedotes about deities and celestial beings, tirthas, rivers, vratas, medicine, architecture, and even poetry among the many other things and actions associated with Sanatana Dharma.

Talk on The Puranas: An introduction and interpretation

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

The Puranic literature holds a very special place in the life of people following Sanatana Dharma. Many scholars opine that the puranas were the main source of bhagavata katha traditions found in India; the bond that has woven the cultural threads among different peoples across the far corners of our country.

Puranic texts are usually in the form of shlokas as conversation between two or more persons, mostly involving maharshis (Saunaka, Suta, Agasthya) and the deities (Agni, Vishnu, Shiva etc) who describe events and incidents to the other rshis, rajas and devotees. Thus the literature is far popular and widely spread as through the medium of interesting ancedotes easily understood by one and all, they explain valuable virtues and dharmas. They include the stories of personalities from all walks of life; bhaktas, avataras, deities, adharmik people, women, people of different varnas and ashramas, children are all discussed there.

All the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Samhitas, while Vedas are Prabhu-Samhitas. Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he is Krishnadvaipayana, the son of Parasara.[1]

The Puranas popularised the teachings of the Vedas. They contain the essence of the Vedas. The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God, through concrete examples, stories, legends, lives of saints, kings and great men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events. Many vratas (vows) have associated kathas (stories) from various Puranas. They also give a description of the regions of the universe not visible to the ordinary physical eye. The ancient seers made use of Puranas to illustrate the eternal principles of dharmas for people of all ashramas. The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary people who could not understand deep philosophy and who could not devote time for the study the Vedas.[1]

The Darsanas and shastras are technical in nature understood by a few who pursue to study them. Through Puranas, essential common dharmas are taught in a very easy and interesting way and are heard even to this day, thus they are popular.

Special Aspects about Puranas

This section discusses about the origin, compilation and phalashruti (benefits) of Puranas. Many Puranas mention that they

  • originated from Brahma's recollection
  • organized and compiled by Maharshi Vedavyasa into eighteen mahapuranas
  • were a single unit prior to being compiled and systematized by Vyasa into 18 Puranas in every Yuga cycle.
  • that they existed across Kalpas and Yugas
  • they consist of certain essential characteristics about the subject matter they deal viz., Purana Lakshana (पुराणलक्षणम्)
  • are the means to accomplish Trivarga (त्रिवर्गसाधनं । means to attain Dharma, Artha, Kama) and Punya.

Origin

Matsya, Skanda and Padma Puranas mention that the Puranas have been given to the world, after Brahma deliberated on them.

पुराणं सर्वशास्त्राणां प्रथमं ब्रह्मणा स्मृतम् अनन्तरं च वक्त्रेभ्यो वेदास्तस्य विनिर्गताः ३

पुराणमेकमेवासीत्तदा कल्पान्तरेऽनघ त्रिवर्गसाधनं पुण्यं शतकोटिप्रविस्तरम् ४ (Mats. Pura. 53.3 and 4)[2]

पुराणं सर्वशास्त्राणां प्रथमं ब्रह्मणा स्मृतम् ४५ (Padm. Pura. 1.1.45)[3]

Summary : Brahma first (recollected) remembered the Puranas in all shastras, later from him (his four faces) came the Vedas. There was only one (unit) of the Puranas at the beginning of the Kalpa.

पुरा तपश्चचारोग्रममराणां पितामहः । आविर्भूतास्ततो वेदाः सषडंगपदक्रमाः ॥ ३ ॥

ततः पुराणमखिलं सर्वशास्त्रमयं ध्रुवम् ॥ (Skan. Pura. 7.1.23-4)

Skanda Purana (7.2.5)[4] mentions that Puranas were given by Brahma (Pitamaha) who performed a severe tapas and from whom the Vedas along with the Vedangas manifested. After the Vedas all the Puranas consisting of the eternal sounds (of Vedas) extending to a hundred crore slokas manifested from the mouth of Brahma.

Bhavishya Purana describe the origin of creation and the puranas from the five faces of Brahma in Brahma Parva (सृष्टिवर्णनं पुराणानां ब्रह्मपञ्चमास्यादुत्पत्तिवर्णनञ्च)

Matsya Purana describes the origin and phalashruti of Puranas thus - the learned, those who know, say that the recitation of the list of the Puranas dealing with kalpas (records of prior events from ancient Kalpas) brings fame and longevity.

पुरातनस्य कल्पस्य पुराणानि विदुर्बुधाः धन्यं यशस्यमायुष्यं पुराणानामनुक्रमम् (Mats. Pura. 53.63)[2]

Linga purana clearly states that it was composed by Brahma based on the events that happened in the Ishana Kalpa and originally it contained a crore shlokas among a hundred crore that comprised all the Puranas.

ईशानकल्पवृत्तांतमधिकृत्य महात्मना।। ब्रह्मणा कल्पितं पूर्वं पुराणं लौंगमुत्तमम्।। २.१ ।। (Ling. Pura. 1.2.1)[5]

The above reference amply supports the fact that Puranas are not myths or made up stories but they are layer of antique literature which are coming down since very large periods of time, from across the Kalpas. This fact also explains the variant versions of the same legends as they have variations in different kalpas.

Veda Vyasa Compiled Puranas

Maharshi Veda Vyasa is credited with the organization of the Ashtadasha Mahapuranas or the Eighteen Mahapuranas as per many Puranas themselves. The Vayu Purana cites that Ashtadasha Puranas and Itihasa (Mahabharata) from the beginning to the end is the prasada of Vyasa maharshi.

व्यासप्रसादाधिगतशास्त्रसम्बोधनेन च ।। ४२.१ ।।

अष्टादशपुराणानि सेतिहासानि चानघ। उपक्रमोपसंहार विधिनोक्तानि कृत्स्नशः ।। ४२.२ ।। (Vayu. Pura. 2.42.1-2)[6]

Krishna Dvaipayana (name of Vyasa in the present Vaivasvata Manvantara) composed (has given) the puranas.

कृष्णद्वैपायनेनोक्तं पुराणं ब्रह्मवादिना ।। ४१.५१ ।। (Vayu. Pura. 2.41.51)[7]

In Vedas and Vedangas

In Taittriya Aranyaka (2.10) of Krishna Yajurveda and Shatapatha Brahmana (11.5.6-8) we find a mention of Brahmanas, Itihasas, Puranas, and Narasamshi gathas that are part of svadhyaya.

मध्वाहुतयो ह वा एता देवानाम्। यदनुशासनानि विद्या वाकोवाक्यमितिहासपुराणं गाथा नाराशंस्यः स य एवं विद्वाननुशासनानि विद्या वाकोवाक्यमितिहासपुराणं गाथा नाराशंसीरित्यहरहः स्वाध्यायमधीते.... (Shat. Brah. 11.5.6)[8]

Puranas find a mention in the Atharva veda along with Itihasas in the singular; where it is said that the rks, the samans, the chandas, puranas, yajus originated from the residue (ucchista) of the yajnas.

ऋचः सामानि छन्दांसि पुराणं यजुषा सह । उच्छिष्टाज्जज्ञिरे सर्वे दिवि देवा दिविश्रितः ॥२४॥ (Athar. Veda. 11.9.24)[9]

Brhdaranyanka Upanishad (4.1.2 and 4.5.11) ascribes the origin of the four vedas, Itihas and Puranas, Vidyas, Upanishad shlokas, sutras, their commentaries to the breath of the Mahabhuta (Virat Purusha).

वा अरेऽस्य महतो भूतस्य निःश्वसितमेतद्यदृग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्वाङ्गिरस इतिहासः पुराणं विद्या उपनिषदः श्लोकाः सूत्राण्यनुव्याख्यानानि व्याख्याननीष्टं (Brhd. Upan. 4.5.11)

Gautama Dharmasutras in the context of explaining that the inanimates, animate beings, birds, reptiles, trees - all depend on two classes of people namely the Rajas and Brahmanas who are vedavidvans (बहुश्रुत-ब्राह्मणः), the nature of an educated vedavidvan is described.

स एव बहुश्रुतो भवति ॥ 4 ॥ लोकवेदवेदाङ्गवित् ॥ 5 ॥ वाकोवाक्येतिहासपुराणकुशलः ॥ 6 ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 1.8.4-6)[10]

Bahusthruta Brahmana is that person who has jnana in the four vedas, the six vedangas and is a learned in veda-shastra related tarka or arguments, itihasa and puranas. He not only has faith in them but also actively performs the acharas in accordance with them.[10]

Gautama Dharmasutras (2.2.19) maintain that the main instruments of conduct of activities (vyavahara) for a Raja (ruler) include Vedas, Dharmashastras, Vedangas, Upavedas, and Puranas.

One may notice the importance of Puranas and their role in the lives of people of India in more than one ways. Manusmrti (3.232) further emphasizes that during shraddha rites svadhyaya (study of vedas) has to be rendered in the honour of the forefathers, and thus Vedas, Dharmashastras, Akhyayanas (legends) Itihasa (Ramayana and Mahabharata), Puranas and Khilas have to be recited (to the guests).

स्वाध्यायं श्रावयेत्पित्र्ये धर्मशास्त्राणि चैव हि । आख्यानानीतिहासांश्च पुराणानि खिलानि च । । ३.२३२ (Manu. Smrt. 3.232)[11]

Thus along with Vedic recitation the age old practice of rendering Puranas during Shraddha persists in the Bharatiya tradition.

Panchamaveda

According to a few scholars[12] the explanation of how Puranas get an equal place as Vedas, forming the Panchamaveda is given in the following way. In the Vratyakanda of Atharvaveda we find the following mantras

तमितिहासश्च पुराणं च गाथाश्च नाराशंसीश्चानुव्यचलन् । [११] इतिहासस्य च वै स पुराणस्य च गाथानां च नाराशंसीनां च प्रियं धाम भवति य एवं वेद।। (Athar. Veda. 15.6.11-12)[13]

In Vratyakanda (15th Kanda of Atharvaveda) mantras we find the explanation that Vratyas (also called Kesins (Rig Veda 10.136.1-7) - a group of wandering ascetic people following Vrata) were a preraka (inducers) for prajapati also. Vratyas worshipped elements of nature and Rudra is said to be Vratyapati as described by the Shatarudriya of Yajurveda. We find in the present context that the Vratyas spread to different directions and along with the devatas, pitrs etc who go along with them. In the fifth and sixth suktas of the Vratyakanda it is mentioned that the four vedas, Itihasa, Puranas, Gathas including the Narasamshi, spread with them. Here it suffices to mention that Itihasa and Puranas have the same significance along with the four vedas and thus they form the Fifth Vedas. More details of Vratyas is dealt with separately.

Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2 and 4), Skanda Purana (5.3.1.18)[14] and Bhagavata Purana (1.4.20)[15] mention that Puranas are the texts collectively as Panchamaveda.

Classification of Puranas

Classification of 18 Mahapuranas

Puranas have been classified based on the three gunas, Satvika, Rajasa and Tamasa. Matsya and Skanda purana (Skan. Pura. 7.2.57-58)[4] slokas clearly mention the classification of Puranas as mentioned below.

सात्त्विकेषु पुराणेषु माहात्म्यमधिकं हरेः राजसेषु च माहात्म्यमधिकं ब्रह्मणो विदुः ६८

तद्वदग्नेश्च माहात्म्यं तामसेषु शिवस्य च संकीर्णेषु सरस्वत्याः पितॄणां च निगद्यते ६९ (Mats. Pura. 53.68-69)[2]

Summary : Know that in satvika puranas the glory of Shri Hari is largely mentioned while rajasa puranas greatly mention Brahma's glory. Similarly tamasa puranas there is a mention about the glory of Agni and Shiva. In all the three types of puranas, the glory of Sarasvati and the pitrs (forefathers) have been described.

अष्टादशमहापुराणानि ॥ Eighteen Mahapuranas

Devi Bhagavata enumerates the eighteen Mahapuranas in a nutshell in the following sloka taking their initial letter.

मद्वयं भद्वयं चैव व्रत्रयं वचतुष्टयम् । अनाप-लिंग-कूस्कानि पुराणानि पृथक्पृथक् ॥ २ ॥ (Devi. Bhag. 1.3.2)[16]

  • मद्वयं refers to the two Puranas, the names of which begin with म(Ma). They are Markandeya and Matsya Puranas.
  • भद्वयं refers to the two Puranas, the names of which begin with भ (Bha). They are Bhagavata and Bhavishya.
  • व्रत्रयं refers to the three Puranas, the names of which begin with ब्र (Bra). They are Brahma, Brahmanda and Brahmavaivarta Puranas.
  • वचतुष्टयम् refers to the four Puranas, the names of which begin with व (Va). They are Vishnu, Vamana, Vayu and Varaha Puranas.
  • अनाप-लिं-ग-कूस्कानि refers to Agni (अ), Naaradiya (ना) Padma (प) Linga (लिं) Garuda (ग) Kurma (कू) Skanda (स्का) Puranas.

The list of Puranas and Upapuranas is given in many puranas such as Padmapurana, Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana, Agni Purana (10.8.3), however, they differ widely in names of the puranas (पुराणसंख्यान्तरम्) included and the number of slokas mentioned.

List of Maha Puranas in various puranas
Purana Name List of Mahapuranas
Skanda Purana (Khanda-7 Prabhasa, Prabhasa Kshetra Mahatmya, Adhyaya 2, Shlokas 5-8)[4] Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Bhagavata, Bhavishya, Naradiya, Markandeya, Agneya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda, Vayu Puranas
Vishnu Purana (Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6, Slokas 20-24)[17],

Padma Purana (Khanda-6, Adhyaya 236, Shlokas 14-17)[18],

Varaha Purana (Adhyaya 112, Shlokas 74-77)[19]

Brahma, Padma, Vishnu, Shiva, Bhagavata, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda and Brahmanda Puranas
Garuda Purana (Khanda-1 Acharakhanda, Adhyaya 223, Shlokas 15-16)[20]

Kurma Purana (Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1, Shlokas 13-15)[21]

Brahma, Padma, Vishnu, Shiva, Bhagavata, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda and Vayu

Shivamahapuranam 5.5.15

The main Puranas are:

The widely studied among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Devi Mahatmya of Markandeya Purana among others. Garuda Purana is prescribed to be read during the ten days after the death of a person.

A portion of the Markandeya Purana is well known to all Hindus as Chandi or Devi Mahatmya. Its theme is worship of God as the Divine Mother. Chandi is read widely by the Hindus on sacred days and Navaratri (Durga Puja) days.[1]

अष्टादश-उपपुराणानि ॥ The Eighteen Upa-Puranas

The eighteen Upa-Puranas according to Garuda Purana are

अन्यान्युपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि तु । आद्यं सनत्कुमारोक्तं नारसिंहमथापरम् ॥ १,२२३.१७ ॥

तृतीयं स्कान्दमुद्दिष्टं कुमारेण तु भाषितम् । चतुर्थं शिवधर्माख्यं स्यान्नन्दीश्वरभाषितम् ॥ १,२२३.१८ ॥

दुर्वाससोक्तमाश्चर्यं नारदोक्तमतः परम् । कापिलं वामनञ्चैव तथैवोशनसेरितम् ॥ १,२२३.१९ ॥

ब्रह्माण्डं वारुणञ्चाथ कालिकाह्वयमेव च । माहेश्वरं तथा साम्बमेवं सर्वार्थसञ्चयम् ।

पराशरोक्तमपरं मारीचं भार्गवाह्वयम् ॥ १,२२३.२० ॥ (Garu. Pura. 1.223.18-20)[20]

Sanatkumara, Narasimha, Brihannaradiya, Sivarahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesa and Hamsa.

Content of Puranas

Given below are the number of shlokas in each purana according to Shrimad Bhagavata Purana (Skanda 12)

S. No Purana Name Number of Shlokas (श्लोकसंख्यानि) Contents
1 Agni 15,400 shlokas Contains encyclopedic information. Includes geography of Mithila (Bihar and neighboring states in India), cultural history, politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories, organization of army, theories on proper causes for war, diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, Vastu Shastra (architecture), gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry, food, rituals and numerous other topics.
2 Bhagavata 18,000 shlokas The most studied and popular of the Puranas,[22][23] telling of Vishnu's Avatars Dasha Avataras (दशावताराः), and of Vaishnavism. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.[24] Numerous inconsistent versions of this text and historical manuscripts exist, in many Indian languages.[25] Influential and elaborated during Bhakti movement.[26]
3 Brahma 10,000 shlokas Sometimes also called Adi Purana, because many Mahapuranas lists put it first of 18.[27] The text has 245 chapters, shares many passages with Vishnu, Vayu, Markendeya Puranas, and with the Mahabharata. Includes mythology, theory of war, art work in temples, and other cultural topics. Describes holy places in Odisha, and weaves themes of Vishnu and Shiva, but hardly any mention of deity Brahma despite the title.[27]
4 Brahmanda 12,000 shlokas One of the earliest composed Puranas, it contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.[24] Includes Lalita Sahasranamam, law codes, system of governance, administration, diplomacy, trade, ethics. Old manuscripts of Brahmanda Purana have been found in the Hindu literature collections of Bali, Indonesia.[28][29]
5 Brahmavaivarta 18,000 shlokas Discusses Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha, Devis, Vishnu, Krishna and Radha. Primarily mythology, love and seduction stories of gods and goddesses.[30] Mentions geography and rivers such as Ganga to Kaveri.
6 Bhavishya* 14,500 shlokas
6 Garuda 19,000 shlokas An encyclopedia of diverse topics.[29] Primarily about Vishnu, but praises all gods. Describes how Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma collaborate. Many chapters are a dialogue between Vishnu and the bird-vehicle Garuda. Cosmology, Describes cosmology, relationship between gods. Discusses ethics, what are crimes, good verses evil, various schools of Hindu philosophies, the theory of Yoga, the theory of "heaven and hell" with "karma and rebirth", includes Upanishadic discussion of self-knowledge as a means of moksha.[31] Includes chapters on rivers, geography of Bharat (India) and other nations on earth, types of minerals and stones, testing methods for stones for their quality, various diseases and their symptoms, various medicines, aphrodisiacs, prophylactics, Hindu calendar and its basis, astronomy, moon, planets, astrology, architecture, building home, essential features of a temple, rites of passage, virtues such as compassion, charity and gift making, economy, thrift, duties of a king, politics, state officials and their roles and how to appointment them, genre of literature, rules of grammar, and other topics.[31] The final chapters discuss how to practice Yoga (Samkhya and Advaita types), personal development and the benefits of self-knowledge.[31]
7 Kurma 17,000 shlokas Is the second of ten major avatars of Lord Vishnu.
8 Linga 11,000 shlokas Discusses Lingam, symbol of Shiva, and origin of the universe. It also contains many stories of Lingam, one of which entails how Agni Lingam solved a dispute between Vishnu and Brahma.
9 Markandeya 9,000 shlokas Describes Vindhya Range and western India. Probably composed in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti rivers, in Maharashtra and Gujarat.[32] Named after sage Markandeya, a student of Brahma. Contains chapters on dharma and on Hindu epic Mahabharata.[33] The Purana includes Devi Mahatmyam of Shaktism.
10 Matsya 14,000 shlokas An encyclopedia of diverse topics.[29] Narrates the story of Matsya, the first of ten major Avatars of Vishnu. Likely composed in west India, by people aware of geographical details of the Narmada river. Includes legends about Brahma and Saraswati.[34] It also contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.[24]
11 Narada 25,000 shlokas Also called Naradiya Purana. Discusses the four Vedas and the six Vedangas. Dedicates one chapter each, from Chapters 92 to 109, to summarize the other 17 Maha Puranas and itself. Lists major rivers of India and places of pilgrimage, and a short tour guide for each. Includes discussion of various philosophies, soteriology, planets, astronomy, myths and characteristics of major deities including Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, Krishna, Rama, Lakshmi and others.[35]
12 Padma 55,000 shlokas A large compilation of diverse topics. The north Indian manuscripts of Padma Purana are very different than south Indian versions, and the various recensions in both groups in different languages (Devanagari and Bengali, for example) show major inconsistencies.[36] Describes cosmology, the world and nature of life from the perspective of Vishnu. Discusses festivals, numerous legends, geography of rivers and regions from northwest India to Bengal to the kingdom of Tripura, major sages of India, various Avatars of Vishnu and his cooperation with Shiva, the story of Rama-Sita that is different than the Hindu epic Ramayana.[37] Like Skanda Purana, it is a detailed treatise on travel and pilgrimage centers in India.[37][38]
13 Shiva 24,000 shlokas Discusses Shiva, and stories about him.
14 Skanda 81,100 shlokas Describes the birth of Skanda (or Karthikeya), son of Shiva. The longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage guide, containing geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends, parables, hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.[39]
15 Vamana 10,000 shlokas Describes North India, particularly Himalayan foothills region.
16 Varaha 24,000 shlokas Primarily Vishnu-related worship manual, with large Mahatmya sections or travel guide to Mathura and Nepal.[40] Presentation focuses on Varaha as incarnation of Narayana, but rarely uses the terms Krishna or Vasudeva.[40] Many illustrations also involve Shiva and Durga.[41]
17 Vayu 24,000 verses Possibly the oldest of all Maha Puranas. Some medieval Indian texts call it Vayaviya Purana. Mentioned and studied by Al Biruni, the 11th century Persian visitor to India. Praises Shiva. Discusses rituals, family life, and life stages of a human being. The content in Vayu Purana is also found in Markandeya Purana. Describes south India, particularly modern Telangana and Andhra Pradesh regions. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.[24]
18 Vishnu 23,000 shlokas One of the most studied and circulated Puranas, it also contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.[24] Better preserved after the 17th century, but exists in inconsistent versions, more ancient pre-15th century versions are very different from modern versions, with some versions discussing Buddhism and Jainism. Some chapters likely composed in Kashmir and Punjab region of South Asia. A Vaishnavism text, focussed on Vishnu.[42]

The Mahapuranas have also been classified based on a specific deity, although the texts are mixed and revere all gods and goddesses:

Brāhma:[36] Brahma Purana, Padma Purana
Surya:[36] Brahma Vaivarta Purana
Agni:[36] Agni Purana
Śaiva:[36] Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Varaha Purana, Vāmana Purana, Kūrma Purana, Matsya Purana, Mārkandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Brahmānda Purana
Vaiṣṇava:[36] Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Vayu Purana, Varaha Purana

The Padma Purana, Uttara Khanda (236.18-21),[43] itself a Vaishnava Purana, classifies the Puranas in accordance with the three gunas or qualities; truth, passion, and ignorance.

Sattva
("truth")		 Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana
Rajas
("passion")		 Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana
Tamas
("ignorance")		 Matsya Purana, Kurma purana, Linga Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana

All major Puranas contain sections on Devi (goddesses) and Tantra, but of these the six most significant ones are: Markandeya Purana, Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Agni Purana and Padma Purana.[44]

Influence

Om Prakash states the Puranas served as efficient medium for cultural exchange and popular education in ancient and medieval India.[45] These texts adopted, explained and integrated regional deities such as Pashupata in Vayu Purana, Sattva in Vishnu Purana, Dattatreya in Markendeya Purana, Bhojakas in Bhavishya Purana.[45] Further, states Prakash, they dedicated chapters to "secular subjects such as poetics, dramaturgy, grammar, lexicography, astronomy, war, politics, architecture, geography and medicine as in Agni Purana, perfumery and lapidary arts in Garuda Purana, painting, sculpture and other arts in Vishnudharmottara Purana".[45]

Indian Arts

The cultural influence of the Puranas extended to Indian classical arts, such as songs, dance culture such as Bharata Natyam in south India[46] and Rasa Lila in northeast India,[47] plays and recitations.[48]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 41-45
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Matsya Purana (Adhyaya 53)
  3. ↑ Padma Puranam (Khanda 1 Srustikhandam)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Skanda Purana (Prabhasa Khanda, Prabhasa Kshetra Mahatmya, Adhyaya 2)
  5. ↑ Linga Purana (Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 2) in sa.wikisource.org
  6. ↑ Vayu Purana (Uttarardham Adhyaya 42)
  7. ↑ Vayu Purana (Uttarardham Adhyaya 41)
  8. ↑ Shatapatha Brahmana (Kanda 11, Adhyaya 5, Brahmana 6)
  9. ↑ Atharva Veda (Kanda 11, Sukta 9)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Dr. Umesh Chandra Pandey. (1966) Gautama Dharmasutra with Mitakshari Sanskrit Commentary of Haradatta. Varanasi : Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office (See Prashna 1, Adhyaya 8)
  11. ↑ Manusmrti (Adhyaya 3)
  12. ↑ Pt. Giridhar Sharma Chaturvedi (1998) Purana Parishilan (Hindi). Patna : Bihar Rashtrabhasha Parishad. (Pages 2-3)
  13. ↑ Atharva Veda (Kanda 15, Sukta 6)
  14. ↑ Skanda Puranam (Reva Khanda)
  15. ↑ Shrimad Bhagavata Puranam (Skanda 1 Adhyaya 4)
  16. ↑ Devi Bhagavata Purana (Skanda 1 Adhyaya 3)
  17. ↑ Vishnupurana (Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6)
  18. ↑ Padma Purana (Khanda 6 (Uttara Khanda) Adhyaya 236) in sa.wikisource.org
  19. ↑ Varaha Purana (Adhyaya 112) in sa.wikisource.org
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Garuda Purana (Acharakhanda, Adhyaya 223) in sa.wikisource.org
  21. ↑ Kurma Purana (Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1) in sa.wikisource.org
  22. ↑ Thompson, Richard L. (2007). The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 10. ISBN 978-81-208-1919-1.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  23. ↑ Monier-Williams 1899, p. 752, column 3, under the entry Bhagavata.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 115-121 with footnotes
  25. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 139-149
  26. ↑ Hardy 2001
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 154-156
  28. ↑ H Hinzler (1993), Balinese palm-leaf manuscripts, In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde, Manuscripts of Indonesia 149 (1993), No 3, Leiden: BRILL, page 442
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 78-79
  30. ↑ Giorgio Bonazzoli (1977), Seduction Stories in the Brahmavaivarta Purana, Purana, Vol. XIX, No. 2, pages 321-341
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 MN Dutt, The Garuda Purana Calcutta (1908)
  32. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 70-71
  33. ↑ RC Hazra (1987), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 8-11
  34. ↑ Catherine Ludvik (2007), Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004158146, pages 139-141
  35. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 202-203
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 59-61
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 209-215
  38. ↑ Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 281-283 with footnotes on page 553
  39. ↑ Doniger 1993, pp. 59–83
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 RC Hazra (1940), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass (1987 Reprint), ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 96-97
  41. ↑ Wilson, Horace H. (1864), The Vishṅu Purāṅa: a system of Hindu mythology and tradition Volume 1 of 4, Trübner, p. LXXI<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  42. ↑ Lochtefeld, James G. (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z, The Rosen Publishing Group, p. 760, ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  43. ↑ Wilson, H. H. (1840). The Vishnu Purana: A system of Hindu mythology and tradition. Oriental Translation Fund. p. 12.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  44. ↑ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 113-114, 153-154, 161, 167-169, 171-174, 182-187, 190-194, 210, 225-227, 242
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Om Prakash (2004), Cultural History of India, New Age, ISBN 978-8122415872, pages 33-34
  46. ↑ Katherine Zubko (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201
  47. ↑ Guy Beck (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201
  48. ↑ Ilona Wilczewska (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 202-220
Retrieved from ‘https://dharmawiki.org/index.php?title=Puranas_(पुराणानि)&oldid=130184’