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{{ToBeEdited}}Most historians of pre-British India agree that India of that time was not only an agricultural, but also an industrial society. And a survey of Indian technologies cannot be complete without some discussion of textiles, the great industrial enterprise of pre-British India. Up to 1800, India was the world’s leading producer and exporter of textiles. This production was almost entirely based on techniques that could be operated at the level of the individual or the family. Spinning of yarn was an activity in which perhaps whole of India participated. According to an observer from Manchester, Arno Pearse, who in 1930 visited India to study its cotton industry, there were probably 5 crore spinning wheels (charkhas) intermittently at work even then. And this simple small wheel was so efficient that till the early decades of the 19th century, a widowed mother could still maintain a whole family in reasonable manner by spinning on the charkha for a few hours a day. Weaving was a relatively more specialised activity. However, the number of those belonging to the weaver castes was smaller in comparison to those from the cultivating castes. Early 19th century data for certain districts of South India indicate that each district had around 20,000 looms. Arno Pearse in 1930 estimated the number of handlooms operating in India to be in the vicinity of 20 lakhs.<ref name=":1" />

{{ToBeEdited}}Most historians of pre-British India agree that India of that time was not only an agricultural, but also an industrial society. And a survey of Indian technologies cannot be complete without some discussion of textiles, the great industrial enterprise of pre-British India. Up to 1800, India was the world’s leading producer and exporter of textiles. This production was almost entirely based on techniques that could be operated at the level of the individual or the family. Spinning of yarn was an activity in which perhaps whole of India participated. According to an observer from Manchester, Arno Pearse, who in 1930 visited India to study its cotton industry, there were probably 5 crore spinning wheels (charkhas) intermittently at work even then. And this simple small wheel was so efficient that till the early decades of the 19th century, a widowed mother could still maintain a whole family in reasonable manner by spinning on the charkha for a few hours a day. Weaving was a relatively more specialised activity. However, the number of those belonging to the weaver castes was smaller in comparison to those from the cultivating castes. Early 19th century data for certain districts of South India indicate that each district had around 20,000 looms. Arno Pearse in 1930 estimated the number of handlooms operating in India to be in the vicinity of 20 lakhs.<ref name=":1" />

== Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

The term textile is derived from the Latin word 'texere' which means, 'to weave'. It refers to woven (i.e. interlaced warp-weft) fabrics. And 'fabric' is a generic term for all fibrous constructions.<ref name=":0">A. K. Bag (1997), [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n395/mode/2up History of Technology in India] (Vol.I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.</ref>

The term textile is derived from the Latin word 'texere' which means, 'to weave'. It refers to woven (i.e. interlaced warp-weft) fabrics. And 'fabric' is a generic term for all fibrous constructions.<ref name=":0">A. K. Bag (1997), [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205662/page/n395/mode/2up History of Technology in India] (Vol.I), New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.</ref>

# Loom structure.<ref name=":0" />  

# Loom structure.<ref name=":0" />  

== Fibre ==

== Fibre ==

Fibres used in India can be accommodated within the categories of bast, wool, silk and cotton. Animal skin and bark cloth(2) are, therefore, being excluded. Felt, namda(3) being non woven, may be classified as a fabric rather than a textile, and has been eliminated from the purview of this survey.

The Yajnavalkya Smrti and the Mahabharata are known to mention bark cloth worn by ascetics known as Valkala. Both these texts refer to a bark cloth, potti in usage in the districts of Ganjam in Orissa and Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. However, it is not clear if this has been confused with the woven bast fibre, pata (पाट) which, according to Professor R.S. Singh is derived from a plant of the Malvaceae family, the fabric being called Patu (पाटु).

(2) Usage of animal skin by ascetics is mentioned in the Rgveda. This text is dated by Kane between B.C.4000-1000. Vedic texts refer to animal skins as ajina Macdonell, and Keith, p.14, ajina, q.v. The bark cloth tradition which is so  rich in Africa and the Pacific Islands, is relatively weak in India. Valkala, a bark cloth worn by ascetics, is mentioned in the Yajnavalkya-smrti and the Mahabharata {Monier Williams, p.928 Valkala q.w; Sardesai and Padhya, p.61). The Yajnavalkyasmrti and Mahabharata have been dated respectively between A.D. 100-300 {Kane,} and between B.C. 4th century to A.D. 4th century (Winternitz, p.465, Krishnamoorthy, p.272). Both these texts refer to a bark cloth, potti in usage in the districts of Ganjam in Orissa and Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. It is not clear if this has been confused with the woven bast fibre, pata which, according to Professor R.S. Singh (formerly of the Department of Rasa Shastra, Institute Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi), is derived from a plant of the Malvaceae family, the fabric being called Patu (see below patta n.1O).

This confusion is a result of a common terminology, pat/patta/putta for silk as well as jute. B. N. Singh has demonstrated that patta can be taken as a reference to a cloth woven from a variety of bast fibres. Initially it was derived from plants of the Malvaceae, shifting later to the Hibiscus cannibinus grouping. However, after the 4th century A. D. the term patta was imbued with the connotation of silk. It is possible that the Bengali term pat for Jute was coined because of the glossy appearance of the fibre.

At a much later date, the Garo tribe of Northeast India receive notice for Phakram, Grewia (Leea) liliaefolia; Thewek, like Phakram, a leguminous tree; Phrap, a Ficus, and Chram, an Artocarpus jackfruit. See Walker, pp.l5- 16. Mittre on p.46 notes that in South India bark of Antiaris toxicara is soaked and beaten into cloth.

That apart, it is also noted that in South India, bark of Antiaris toxicara is soaked and beaten into cloth.

 

Thus, bark cloth is being excluded here. Felt, namda(3) being non woven, may be classified as a fabric rather than a textile, and has been eliminated from the purview of this survey.

(3) Namda, felt, is made from sheep wool in Kutch Gujarat, Tank, Rajasthan and in Kashmir. The wool fibre is spread on some material which serves as a mat. The wool is moistened, rolled and pounded until the fibres adhere to each other and mesh into a fabric. Irene Emery ascribes its origins to the nomadic peoples of Central Asia. (Emery 1980, p.22). Wufflp.222) identifies a date as early as B. C. 2300 to felt in Chinese sources). On the basis of the documentation of felt making described by Louis D. Levine (pp.203-21 1) at the Kurdish village, Seh Gobi, and equivalent field data available in India, it is clear that the same techniques are followed at Indian centres. Emery (1980) distinguishes between felt and felting as a finishing process in woven cloth. In the latter, woven woollen cloth in subjected to the same process as for felt, and the resulting fabric may present a similar surface appearance. Such a process should, however, be called fulling (Emery 1980, p. 23). India also has a tradition of felting. According to Sri Gangalal Weaver, Chitkul Village, Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh, after completion of weaving of local woollen material it is soaked in a large container. It is then foot pounded for one day in the same water filled container. After drying it is ready for use. Kharcha cloth woven in narrow width from inferior quality shawl goat underfur is fulled in the same way. Kharcha has a multiplicity of uses and is reputed to be waterproof.<ref name=":0" />

(3) Namda, felt, is made from sheep wool in Kutch Gujarat, Tank, Rajasthan and in Kashmir. The wool fibre is spread on some material which serves as a mat. The wool is moistened, rolled and pounded until the fibres adhere to each other and mesh into a fabric. Irene Emery ascribes its origins to the nomadic peoples of Central Asia. (Emery 1980, p.22). Wufflp.222) identifies a date as early as B. C. 2300 to felt in Chinese sources). On the basis of the documentation of felt making described by Louis D. Levine (pp.203-21 1) at the Kurdish village, Seh Gobi, and equivalent field data available in India, it is clear that the same techniques are followed at Indian centres. Emery (1980) distinguishes between felt and felting as a finishing process in woven cloth. In the latter, woven woollen cloth in subjected to the same process as for felt, and the resulting fabric may present a similar surface appearance. Such a process should, however, be called fulling (Emery 1980, p. 23). India also has a tradition of felting. According to Sri Gangalal Weaver, Chitkul Village, Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh, after completion of weaving of local woollen material it is soaked in a large container. It is then foot pounded for one day in the same water filled container. After drying it is ready for use. Kharcha cloth woven in narrow width from inferior quality shawl goat underfur is fulled in the same way. Kharcha has a multiplicity of uses and is reputed to be waterproof.<ref name=":0" />

== Bast Fibres ==

=== Bast Fibres ===

The term bast fibre covers the category of strong ligneous fibres of which the most important are flax, hemp, jute and ramie, separated by the process of retting from certain parts of plant tissue. For the proper utilisation of such fibres the precise point at which further decomposition has to be arrested has to be accurately guaged. Fibres may be either woven into clothing or be diverted to the manufacture of cordage and meeting.

The term bast fibre covers the category of strong ligneous fibres of which the most important are flax, hemp, jute and ramie, separated by the process of retting from certain parts of plant tissue. For the proper utilisation of such fibres the precise point at which further decomposition has to be arrested has to be accurately guaged. Fibres may be either woven into clothing or be diverted to the manufacture of cordage and meeting.

(14) Master. Streynsham (p. 136. Temple p.339) equates herba/erba with tasar, a wild silk For ecorce d'arbre see Savary II, p.239, ecorce d'arbre, q.v.<ref name=":0" />

(14) Master. Streynsham (p. 136. Temple p.339) equates herba/erba with tasar, a wild silk For ecorce d'arbre see Savary II, p.239, ecorce d'arbre, q.v.<ref name=":0" />

== Wool ==

=== Wool ===

Woollen fabrics have a tradition as old as that of bast fibres in India. Panini refers to the category of woolen garments as aurna/aurnak (15).  

Woollen fabrics have a tradition as old as that of bast fibres in India. Panini refers to the category of woolen garments as aurna/aurnak (15).  

Owing to geographical and environmental factors, wool, over the major portion of India, is of inferior quality. Apart from Kashmir, Kutch and Saurashtra in Gujarat, and centres in Western Rajasthan, have developed items of variegated design in polychrome hues using rough quality sheeps’ wool. In areas of low to deficient rainfall in Northern India, the camel is an important domesticated animal, but the hair of the Indian one- humped dromedary, unlike that of the Bactrian two-humped animal, is not altogether suitable for weaving. The Meghwal Community in Rajasthan weave a floor covering in which the warp is hand spun goat hair, and the weft, camel hair (Figs. 3a-3c).<ref name=":0" />

Owing to geographical and environmental factors, wool, over the major portion of India, is of inferior quality. Apart from Kashmir, Kutch and Saurashtra in Gujarat, and centres in Western Rajasthan, have developed items of variegated design in polychrome hues using rough quality sheeps’ wool. In areas of low to deficient rainfall in Northern India, the camel is an important domesticated animal, but the hair of the Indian one- humped dromedary, unlike that of the Bactrian two-humped animal, is not altogether suitable for weaving. The Meghwal Community in Rajasthan weave a floor covering in which the warp is hand spun goat hair, and the weft, camel hair (Figs. 3a-3c).<ref name=":0" />

== Silk ==

=== Silk ===

The silk tradition in India is a very early one and by the time of the compilation of the Arthashastra (18) there had emerged a clear sense of the distinction between Indian and Chinese silk, and, within India, there was an association between the colour and the quality of local bi- and multi-voltine cocoons of Bombyx mori (mulberry feeding moth), and that spun from the cocoon of the multi-voltine Atticus ricini (Eri).  

The silk tradition in India is a very early one and by the time of the compilation of the Arthashastra (18) there had emerged a clear sense of the distinction between Indian and Chinese silk, and, within India, there was an association between the colour and the quality of local bi- and multi-voltine cocoons of Bombyx mori (mulberry feeding moth), and that spun from the cocoon of the multi-voltine Atticus ricini (Eri).  

Mulberry silk has a tradition of being woven even in areas ignorant of its cultivation, but the weaving of wild silk has tended to be more localised being generally restricted to the actual regions where the raw material was produced. (For further details see Varadarajan, 1986. pp. 189- 1 98; 1988, pp 561-570).<ref name=":0" />

Mulberry silk has a tradition of being woven even in areas ignorant of its cultivation, but the weaving of wild silk has tended to be more localised being generally restricted to the actual regions where the raw material was produced. (For further details see Varadarajan, 1986. pp. 189- 1 98; 1988, pp 561-570).<ref name=":0" />

== Cotton ==

=== Cotton ===

The cradle of cotton cultivation appears to have been the Northwestern part of South Asia. There seems to have been two species, Gossypium arboreum and Gossypium, horbaceum. Three samples of cotton, dated circa B.C. 1760 have been found in Mohenjodaro. Two items constitute the base fibre for string but there is also a small 34 count cotton woven fragment comprising 60 ends and 20 picks per inch. A portion of one of the strings tested showed that the cotton was of the G.arboreum variety. Both varieties existed in their perennial forms in areas with adequate water and warm temperature. The appearance of the annual variety of G.herbaceum, which could be diffused over a larger area is dated circa late 6th early 7th centuries A.D. and its earliest appearance is associated with the Turfan region of Sinkiang. It soon became the predominent species in India as well (20). The highest achievement in the area of textiles in India are associated with manipulation of this fibre.

The cradle of cotton cultivation appears to have been the Northwestern part of South Asia. There seems to have been two species, Gossypium arboreum and Gossypium, horbaceum. Three samples of cotton, dated circa B.C. 1760 have been found in Mohenjodaro. Two items constitute the base fibre for string but there is also a small 34 count cotton woven fragment comprising 60 ends and 20 picks per inch. A portion of one of the strings tested showed that the cotton was of the G.arboreum variety. Both varieties existed in their perennial forms in areas with adequate water and warm temperature. The appearance of the annual variety of G.herbaceum, which could be diffused over a larger area is dated circa late 6th early 7th centuries A.D. and its earliest appearance is associated with the Turfan region of Sinkiang. It soon became the predominent species in India as well (20). The highest achievement in the area of textiles in India are associated with manipulation of this fibre.