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Mineralogy (Samskrit: धातुशास्त्रम्) or metallurgy discusses the chemistry of Dhatus (minerals), their properties, composition, reactions, combination products namely alloys and their uses. A related topic, mining of metals, involves the chemistry of extraction from ores, smelting and forging activities. History of mining in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to pre-Harappan period where the evidence of earliest settlements of farming communities using metal implements have been found.<ref name=":0">Singh. R. D, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mining: Page 48 - ) </ref>  

Mineralogy (Samskrit: धातुशास्त्रम्) or metallurgy discusses the chemistry of Dhatus (minerals), their properties, composition, reactions, combination products namely alloys and their uses. A related topic, mining of metals, involves the chemistry of extraction from ores, smelting and forging activities. History of mining in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to pre-Harappan period where the evidence of earliest settlements of farming communities using metal implements have been found.<ref name=":0">Singh. R. D, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mining: Page 48 - ) </ref>  

Bharatavarsha is known for its use of gold and silver for jewelry and making ornamental vessels for domestic use with silver. Copper tools, such as axes, sickles are found in many archaeological sites indicating that many farming tribes and agricultural communities were using them. Metallurgy of copper and its alloys (brass and bronze) was highly developed during this period. A remarkable use of brass was made in the constructional work of an unfinished Vihara made near Nalanda (Bihar). Thus many archaeological revelations have unearthed valuable knowledge pertaining to sulbashastra (geology) and dhatushastra (metallurgy) of the ancients.<ref name=":0" />  

Bharatavarsha is known for its use of gold and silver for jewelry and making ornamental vessels for domestic use with silver. Copper tools, such as axes, sickles are found in many archaeological sites indicating that many farming tribes and agricultural communities were using them. Metallurgy of copper and its alloys (brass and bronze) was highly developed during this period. A remarkable use of brass was made in the constructional work of an unfinished Vihara made near Nalanda (Bihar). Thus many archaeological revelations have unearthed valuable knowledge pertaining to sulbashastra (geology) and dhatushastra (metallurgy) of the ancients.<ref name=":0" /> [[File:Sushruta's Surgical Tools Made of Iron.PNG|thumb|Ancient Surgical tools in India|450x450px]]

 

== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

Metals, Minerals and ores are mentioned by the terms dhatu (धातुः) khanija (खानिजम्) and the chemistry involved is termed Khanija-rasayana (खानिजरसायनम्). A mineral is defined in modern terms as follows<ref name=":1">''[http://eprints.nmlindia.org/5802/1/1-24.PDF Minerals and Their Exploitation in Ancient and Pre-modern India]'' by Prof. A. K. Biswas</ref><blockquote>''"As we knew mineral is a naturally occurring crystalline element or a compound having definite chemical composition, and formed as a product of inorganic processes."''</blockquote>The scientific analysis of the archaeological and literary evidences points to the debunking of the aryan invasion myth in the recent times.<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>''A number of experts have concluded that the collapse of the Harappan civilization was not on account of any 'foreign invasion' but essentially due to repeated floods, tectonic movement leading to the drying up and disappearance of the Sarasvati river, civil war, loss of trade etc.''</blockquote>Just like pottery, metals in antiquity is also linked to the history of a civilization. In the ancient past, the first metals to be utilized were those found in the native or elemental state, and then progressively those metals were used which could be easily extracted or smelted from their ores. The smelting of metals, which were more difficult to extract from ores, was mastered later. Most of the metals and elements indicated in the Periodic Table were in fact identified only in the last few centuries.   

Metals, Minerals and ores are mentioned by the terms dhatu (धातुः) khanija (खानिजम्) and the chemistry involved is termed Khanija-rasayana (खानिजरसायनम्). A mineral is defined in modern terms as follows<ref name=":1">''[http://eprints.nmlindia.org/5802/1/1-24.PDF Minerals and Their Exploitation in Ancient and Pre-modern India]'' by Prof. A. K. Biswas</ref><blockquote>''"As we knew mineral is a naturally occurring crystalline element or a compound having definite chemical composition, and formed as a product of inorganic processes."''</blockquote>The scientific analysis of the archaeological and literary evidences points to the debunking of the aryan invasion myth in the recent times.<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>''A number of experts have concluded that the collapse of the Harappan civilization was not on account of any 'foreign invasion' but essentially due to repeated floods, tectonic movement leading to the drying up and disappearance of the Sarasvati river, civil war, loss of trade etc.''</blockquote>Just like pottery, metals in antiquity is also linked to the history of a civilization. In the ancient past, the first metals to be utilized were those found in the native or elemental state, and then progressively those metals were used which could be easily extracted or smelted from their ores. The smelting of metals, which were more difficult to extract from ores, was mastered later. Most of the metals and elements indicated in the Periodic Table were in fact identified only in the last few centuries.