Mineralogy (धातुशास्त्रम्)

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Mineralogy (Samskrit: धातुशास्त्रम्) or metallurgy discusses the chemistry of Dhatus (minerals), their properties, composition, reactions, combination products namely alloys and their uses. A related topic, mining of metals, involves the chemistry of extraction from ores, smelting and forging activities. History of mining in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to pre-Harappan period where the evidence of earliest settlements of farming communities using metal implements have been found.

Bharatavarsha is known for its use of gold and silver for jewelry and making ornamental vessels for domestic use with silver. Copper tools, such as axes, sickles are found in many archaeological sites indicating that many farming tribes and agricultural communities were using them. Metallurgy of copper and its alloys (brass and bronze) was highly developed during this period. A remarkable use of brass was made in the constructional work of an unfinished Vihara made near Nalanda (Bihar). Thus many archaeological revelations have unearthed valuable knowledge pertaining to sulbashastra (geology) and dhatushastra (metallurgy) of the ancients.

Introduction

Metals, Minerals and ores are mentioned by the terms dhatu (धातुः) khanija (खानिजम्) and the chemistry involved is termed Khanija-rasayana (खानिजरसायनम्). A mineral is defined in modern terms as follows

"As we knew mineral is a naturally occurring crystalline element or a compound having definite chemical composition, and formed as a product of inorganic processes."

The scientific analysis of the archaeological and literary evidences points to the debunking of the aryan invasion myth in the recent times.

A number of experts have concluded that the collapse of the Harappan civilization was not on account of any 'foreign invasion' but essentially due to repeated floods, tectonic movement leading to the drying up and disappearance of the Sarasvati river, civil war, loss of trade etc.

Just like pottery, metals in antiquity is also linked to the history of a civilization. In the ancient past, the first metals to be utilized were those found in the native or elemental state, and then progressively those metals were used which could be easily extracted or smelted from their ores. The smelting of metals, which were more difficult to extract from ores, was mastered later. Most of the metals and elements indicated in the Periodic Table were in fact identified only in the last few centuries.

Alchemy was one of the chief areas for the exploration of mercurial compounds, as specialists in medicine like Charaka, believed in the search for the ideal rasa or elixir which could prolong life indefinitely. They believed in therapeutic values of organic as well as inorganic materials such as metals and metallic compounds; they also aspired to convert base metals into gold. This alchemical dream was boosted when Nagarjuna claimed (Rasaratnakara - 1.3) that zinc ore roasted thrice with copper converts the latter into 'gold'. However, it was gold-like, brilliant yellow brass that came into existence.

Many textual evidences which speak about gems, minerals and metals include the Rig and Yajurvedic references of antiquity, while early pre-christian era texts such as Kautilya's Arthashastra deal extensively about the ratnas or gems apart from other untraced books like Mahakala or Vyaadi. Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna traced to 2nd century A.D. and Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira of 5th century throw light on many aspects of ratnapariksha. The pre-modern texts like Vagbhata's Ashtangahridaya, Rasarnava (12th Century A.D.), Ratnapariksha by Buddhabhatta, Rasaratnasamucchaya and Agastimata are exclusive medieval texts which are quite valuable even in present day to adapt and improvise the chemical techniques followed in the present day.

Minerals in Vedas

Naturally Bharat's exploration for minerals and metals used in the past started with the Rigveda, the world's oldest literature. In the Rigveda we find some concern for digging and mines (khanitra), mining treasure (nidhi) and gems (mani, ratna) etc. Conch-shell (sankha) and conchpearl (krshana) were quite popular. Ayas (अयस्) in the Rigveda meant 'metal' in general and not 'iron' in particular which the scholars mention was a later discovery. Ayasi or metallic equipments in the Rigvedic texts were probably made of copper and its alloys such as bronze. Various implements and artefacts made of copper, bronze, and ornaments made of gold and silver are described.

Mention about metalsmith (कार्मारः) is made in Rigveda (9.112.2)

कार्मारो अश्मभिर्द्युभिर्हिरण्यवन्तमिच्छतीन्द्रायेन्दो परि स्रव ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.191.15)

A furnace, blower and fire - the setup used by a metalsmith has been described. Fire is described as a 'cradle of gems' that melts gold and the blower (ध्मातरी dhmaatari) or metalsmith blows to produce sharp flame in a furnace.

यदीमह त्रितो दिव्युप ध्मातेव धमति शिशीते ध्मातरी यथा ॥५॥ (Rig. Veda. 5.9.5)

Shatapatha Brahmana introduces the word "bhastraa" meaning a leather bellow used to blow air into a furnace (1.1.2.7, 1.6.3.16). Yajurveda was the first literature to mention gold (हिरण्यं), "shyaamaayasa (श्यामं)" or "krshnaayasa" which is black metal or iron specifically, loha or red metal copper (लोहं), sisam or lead (सीसं) and trapu or tin (त्रपु) in the Rudrachamaka, clearly mentions the production of metals from yajna. Agni clearly has a vital role in the extraction and working of metals.

हिरण्यं च मे यश् च मे श्यामं च मे लोहं च मे सीसं च मे त्रपु च मे यज्ञेन कल्पन्ताम् ॥ (Shuk. Yaju. Veda. 18.13)

Atharvaveda describes the genesis of the shankha (conch) and mukta (pearl) in the oceans.

दिवि जातः समुद्रजः सिन्धुतस्पर्याभृतः । स नो हिरण्यजाः शङ्ख आयुष्प्रतरणो मणिः ॥४॥ (Athar. Veda. 4.10.4)

Summary: This Atharvaveda sukta (4.10.1-7) extols the greatness of shankha as the precious gem which has taken birth from Vayu, Antariksha and other mandalas as the remover of all papa (sins) and protector from all kinds of ailments, remover of poverty and unforseen disasters. Shankha first arose in the celestial worlds and then from the oceans on earth. Chandogya Upanisad recognised that metals have intrinsic properties irrespective of the shapes that these may assume (Cha. Up 6.1.5 & 6). It stipulated that one can join gold with the help of borax, lead with the help of tin 'etc.

तद्यथा लवणेन सुवर्णँ सन्दध्यात्सुवर्णेन रजतँ रजतेन त्रपु त्रपुणा सीसँ सीसेन लोहं लोहेन दारु दारु चर्मणा ॥ ७ ॥ (Chan. Upan. 4.17.7)

Summary: Just as one would join together (pieces of) gold by borax, by gold silver, by silver tin, by tin lead, by lead iron, by iron wood or by leather.

It is interesting to note that ancient texts have mentioned many matters regarding the existence and usage of metals, their properties, nature and their extraction. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya acclaimed Uddalaka Aruni as 'the first scientist in the world'. Uddalaka Aruni as mentioned in the Chandogya Upanishad propounded that everything in the universe including man evolved out of three elements, and even mind is a product of matter. According to Chattopadhyaya Uddalaka preceded Theles of Greece by nearly two centuries.

Metals and Gems

Origin of Metals and Gems

There are many legends about the origin of metals and gems in the vaidika vangmaya. Many puranas discuss about the origin of gold from the semen of Shiva.

Ratnapariksa and Agastimata narrated the legend that gems had been derived from the body of the slain demon Bala: diamond from his bones, pearl from the teeth, ruby from the blood, sapphire from the eyes, emerald from the bile etc. The mythical bird Garuda had taken the green bile of the demon in its mouth and then vomitted it (hence the name Garutmata and Garudodgaara) on a mountain on the sea- coast near a desert 'beyond Barbara country’. Both Ratnapariksha and Agastimata mentioned Garuda as the ruler of the serpents hence called pannagadhipah. Panna also means something fallen down or dropped. Thus, the dropped bile or the green emerald also came to be known as panna.

In his Brhat Samhita, Varahamihira gave a scientific explanation that the gems were caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth.

रत्नानि बलाद्दैत्याद्दधीचितोऽन्ये वदन्ति जातानि । केचिद्भुवः स्वभावाद्वैचित्र्यं प्राहुरुपलानाम् ।। (Brht. Samh. 80.3)

Meaning: Gems, they say, were born of the bones of the daitya Bala; while others state that they were born of Dadichi; yet others say that the wonderful variety of germs is caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth.

Gem-Minerals

Earliest complete description of the gems is given in texts such as Arthashastra and Brhat Samhita.

वज्रैन्द्रनील-मरकतकर्केतरपद्मरागरुधिरऽख्याः । वैदूर्य[क्.वैडूर्य]पुलकविमलकराजमणिस्फटिकशशिकान्ताः ।।

सौगन्धिक-गोमेदक-शङ्ख-महानील-पुष्परागऽख्याः । ब्रह्ममणि-ज्योतीरस-सस्यक-मुक्ता-प्रवालानि ।। (Brht. Samh. 80.4-5)

Meaning: The following are the gems: Vajra (Diamonds), Indranila (Sapphire), Marakata (Emerald), Arkata (Agate), Padmaraga (Ruby), Rudhira (Blood-stone), Vaidurya (Beryl), Pulaka (Amethyst), Vimalaka, Rajamani, Spatika (Quartz), Shashikanta (moon-gem), Saugandhika, Gomedaka (Zircon), Shankha (Conch Shell), Mahanila (Azure), Pushparaga (Topaz), Brahma-mani, Jyoteerasa, Sasyaka, Mukta (Pearl), Pravala (Coral).

The names of many minerals and elements that we find in European languages were originally derived from Samskrit, having strong etymological roots. A few samskrit origins of minerals are as follows.

1. Corundum is derived from "कुरुविन्दः । kuruvinda", meaning that which abrades.
2. Sulphur was derived from "शुल्वारी । Shulvari" meaning that which is enemy (अरिः) of, or reacts with, copper (शुल्वा। Shulva).
3. Beryllium is derived from mineral Beryl. Beryl is derived from the term वैदूर्यम् । Vaidurya or the South Indian term "Veluriya". Panini mentions in his Ashtadhyayi (4.3.84) that the mineral came from Vidura (विदूर) locality in South India (hence termed Vaidurya), identified as Salem district, supported by evidence that mines of Coimbatore used to supply beryl for its export to the Romans. Outside India, Veluriya was called Beryllos (Greek) and Beryllus (Latin) from which the English term Beryl and Beryllium came forth.
4. Emerald - 'मरकतम् । Marakata' in Samskrit gave rise to smaragdos in Greek, smaragdus in Latin, esmeralda in Spanish and emerald in English. Emerald has few more name - equivalents in Sanskrit: Harinmani (green gem), Garudodgdra, Garutmata, Panna etc.

The identity of vaidurya with beryl is well- established. It was known to be quite different from cat’s eye. Kautilya listed beryl vaidurya and cat’s eye marjdraksaka as distinctly separate gems (AS 2.11.30 and 39).

Gem categories of Importance in the Ancient India

Name English	Name Samskrit	Colour	Reasons for non-white colour
Diamond	Vajra (वज्रः)	Colourless	Blue due to boron, yellow/green due to nitrogen
Corundrum	Kuruvinda (कुरुविन्दः)	Colourless	Pure Al2O3 is colourless
Ruby	Padmaraga (पद्मरागम्)	Red	Cr3+ (Chromium ion) replaces Al3+ (Aluminium ion). Transition involving ligandfield effect.
Sapphire	Indranila (इन्द्रनीलः)	Blue	Four different mechanisms including charge transfer, combination of Fe (Iron) and Ti (Titanium)
Chrysoberyl/Cat's eye	Marjarakshaka / Lasunia	Green/ Yellow	Green due to Cr and yellow due to Fe substituting in BeAl2O4 structure
Spinel/Balas-ruby	Balasuryaka	Rose-red	Pure spinel Mg Al2O4 is colourless. Cr3+substitution makes it rose-red. Fe and Mg may further alter the colour.
Topaz	Pushparaga (पुष्परागः)	Yellow	Pure topaz is colourless [Al (F,0H)]2 SiO4. Yellow colour is due to impurities - ferrous oxide, lime and alkali. Dichromic is blue.
Beryl	Vaidurya (वैडूर्यम्)	Faint Green, Water colour	Pure beryl Be3Al2Si6O18 is colourless. Faint green due to substituting Cr3+. This is allochromatic effect - transition involving ligand field.
Emerald	Marakata (मरकतक) Panna	Deep grass green	This is beryl containing more Cr3+ imparting green colour. Dichroic, the second blueish colour is due to iron.
Aquamarine	Paribhadra	Faint blue to bluish green	Bluish tinge due to iron.
Zircon	Gomedhaka (गोमेदकः)	Cow-flesh color	Pure zircon ZrSiO4 is colourless. Reddish-yellow colour of Hyacinth is due to Fe3+ decolourised on reduction to Fe2+.
Garnet	Tamrya or Tamdi	Various colors	Family of minerals M2+3 M3+2(SiO4)3. Colour depends upon chemical composition. Hessonite is confused with Hyacinth. Colour due to iron.
Tourmaline	Vaikranta	Various colors	H9Al3(B.OH)2 Si4O19 pure tourmaline is light coloured. Fe2+ and Cr3+ make it dark green. Mg makes it brown and Mn dark red.
Quartz	Sphatika (स्फटिकः)	Colourless	Pure SiO2 is colourless. Yellow citrine due to iron green chrysoprase due to nickel, violet amethyst due to manganese etc.
Agate	Akik	Light colour	Hydrated SiO2 is colourless. Hydrated ferric oxide as impurity makes it brown or yellow.
Carnelian	Rudhirakhya (रुधिर)	Red	Heating causes dehydration and ferric oxide gives red colour to carnelian.
Olivine/ Chrysolite/ Peridot	Puttika / Jabarjad	Bottle green	Pure Mg2SiO4 is colourless Replacement of part of MgO by ferrous oxide makes it yellowish green. Mn2+ Ni2+ further change the colour.
Orthoclase/Feldspar Moonstone Sunstone	Moonstone (शशिकान्तः । Chandrakanta) Sunstone (Suryakanta)	Opalescent play of colour	Interference of light from thin layers.
Jade	Pitu	White green black	Green due to Mn and Cr and Fe2+. Black due to Fe3+
Pearl	Mukta (मुक्ता)	Usually white	Iron, manganese etc.possibly complexed with organic matter, so that the colour is perishable on heating.
Coral	Pravala (प्रवाला) / Vidruma	red, black	Iron, manganese etc.possibly complexed with organic matter, so that the colour is perishable on heating.

A few non-gem minerals of commercial importance in ancient India:

adrija (bitumen), abhraka (mica), kajjali (cinnabar), karpurarasa (calomel), kamksi (alum), kasisa (green vitriol or ferrous sulphate), kharpara (zinc ore), gandhaka (sulphur), gandhara (red lead), chulika lavana (sal ammoniac), tankana (borax), tala (orpiment), tutthaka (blue vitriol), nilanjana (stibnite), makaradhvaja (mercuric sulphide), manahsila (realgar) maksika (pyrite), swarnamakshika (chalcopyrite), mrddarasrnga (anglesite or litharge), rasaka (calamine), rasakarpura (mercuric chloride), rasasindura (mercuric sulphide), rasanjana (stibnite), varatika (marine nodule), vahnimrttika (fire-clay), vimalaka (pyrite), kamsya vimala (arsenopyrite), silajatu (bitumen), sarjika mrttika (river-bed alkaline reh), sasyaka (blue vitriol), sisaja (red lead), suvarcika (borax), srotanjana or sohta (carrollite), haritala (orpiment) etc.

The commonly used eight metals in antiquity are gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, zinc and mercury.

The Eight Metals of Antiquity

The present section reviews the important metals and interesting points about their role since ancient times.

सुवर्णम् हिरण्यम् वा ॥ Gold

Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rigveda samhita. However, not many gold artifacts dating to Pre-Harappan period have been reported although in Rgveda Gold and its alloys with Ag and Cu have been mentioned in many places, such as, 1-85.9, 88.5, 67.3; II-37.9; V-54.15, 57.1, 60.4; VIII - 7.27-32 etc. In Vedic literature this metal has been mentioned as Hiranya (हिरण्यम्) probably because of its high corrosion and oxidation resistance and the practice of its preservation through generations.

A noble metal, gold, is found in the native state, and was used to make jewellery and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metal. In human civilization it has been named as the most sinister and deadly metal although due to its ductility and softness it had proved worthless for making any war weapon.

Extraction Process: Gravity separation or panning. When a pan containing the suspension is agitated under water, gold particles separate and settle at the bottom of the pan, while sand and soil are washed away. The second process known to ancient craftsmen is that of amalgamation with Mercury and recovery of gold by evaporation and distillation of mercury.

In ancient times, gold was collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. However, India has the distinction that the deepest ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of Karnataka with carbon dates from the middle of the first millennium BC.

• Oldest literary reference to usage of Gold in Rigveda
• World's deepest gold mines are found in Karnataka state of India

रजतः ॥ Silver

Unlike gold, the brilliant white metal silver, is related to Chandra, has been introduced relatively late largely because of its non-availability in the nature as native metal. It is rarely found in nature as virgin metal.

Interestingly, as far as silver production goes, the Aravalli region in North-West India ranks amongst the few major ancient silver producing sites in the world.

ताम्रम् ॥ Copper

Early copper artifacts are reported from the pre-Indus valley sites of Baluchistan, the northwestern part of Indian subcontinent. Evidence of ancient mining of copper ores was from the Khetri region of Rajasthan in India dating to about 3rd-2nd millennium BC. Huge quantities of copper objects such as blades, arrow-heads, fish hooks were found from the sites of Pre-harappan excavations. It may be asserted based on evidence that copper metallurgy was developed indigenously in the Indian subcontinent well before 4000 BC.

• Ores of copper as pyrites was identified far before any other civilization.
• Oldest reference of use of indigenous copper metullurgy is found in Indian civilization

रसः ॥ Mercury

Ore of Mercury: Cinnabar (Hingula)

Mercury is a metal that has been of great alchemical importance in ancient times. It is a volatile metal, which is easily produced by heating cinnabar followed by the downward distillation of mercury vapour. Some of the earliest literary references to the use of mercury distillation come from Indian treatises such as the Arthashastra of Kautilya. Ayurvedic texts have presented the science of using mercury, as Rasashastra.

• Sindhur or Vermilion was Cinnabar, mercuric sulphide, was used to make the red/maroon mark on the forehead as described by Charaka.

Delhi Iron Pillar " The Rustless Wonder"

अयस् ॥ Ayas (Iron)

Ores of Iron : Haematite (Fe₂O₃), Magnetite (Fe₃O₄), Goethite (HFeO₂) and Limonite (FeO (OH)_n*H₂O).

Earliest Iron Age sites in India show that the discovery and use of iron started around 1200 BC indigenously and independently in at least three nuclear zones- Karnataka area in the south, U.P and Rajasthan area in the north and West Bengal-Bihar area in the north-east. The evidences of early experimentation justify the theory of indigenous origin. Since iron could not be melted and cast easily, carburization of thin sheets of iron in charcoal fire and subsequent lamination and forge-welding of alternate layers of uncarburized and carburized sheets proved to be a.spectacular and.useful Indian discovery made much before the era of laminated Egyptian knife dated 900-800 BC.

The forging of wrought iron seems to have reached its zenith in India in the first millennium AD. The earliest large forging is the famous iron pillar with a height of over 7 m and weight of about 6 tons at New Delhi ascribed to Chandragupta Vikramaditya 400- 450 CE . The inscription of the Gupta period of the 4th century CE is in Brahmi script of Sanskrit (Figure 8).The pillar is believed to have been made by forging together a series of disc-shaped iron blooms. The Iron Pillar, the earliest and the largest surviving iron forging in the world, is regarded as a metallurgical marvel because it has defied the laws of corrosion of iron even after so many centuries, earning the nickname, the ‘rustless wonder’. Its astounding corrosion-resistance is partly due to its composition; high slag and phosphorus (0.25 p.c.) content and low manganese (0.05) and sulphur (0.005) content.

Another more recent product of repute is the high carbon steel manufactured in the past by the crucible process. Wootz is the anglicized version of ukku in the languages of the states of Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, a term denoting steel. Literary accounts suggest that steel from the southern part of the Indian subcontinent was exported to Europe, China, the Arab world and the Middle East. Studies on Wootz indicate that it was an ultra-high carbon steel with between 1-2% carbon and was used to make the fabled Damascus swords.

• The Largest and Earliest Rustless Iron Forging Wonder : Iron Pillar of Chandragupta Vikramaditya at Delhi
• Wootz Steel prepared by indigenous crucible process.
• Monumental Iron pillars such as the one at Dhar in Central India and Kodachadri in coastal Karnataka and iron beams of the Konark temple.

सीसम् ॥ Lead

The Harappans were acquainted with lead ores such as galena (Lead sulphide) and cerussite (carbonate), and their smelting process which is simple on account of easy reducibility and low melting point of the metal. Lead was commonly alloyed with copper and bronze for making castings. The mineral-rich Aravalli region of Rajasthan was one of the important early lead mining regions in antiquity.

• Lead was used in making alloys.

Zinc

The earliest firm evidence for the production of metallic zinc comes from India. Of the eight metals used in antiquity zinc is one of the most difficult to smelt since it volatalizes at about the same temperature of around 1000 °C that is needed to smelt zinc ore. As a result, it forms as a vapour in the furnace which would immediately get reoxidised and hence the pure form is lost. So there are very few references to metallic zinc in early treatises. In India there is unique evidence for the extensive and semi-industrial production of zinc at the Zawar area of Rajasthan. An ingenious method was devised of downward distillation of the zinc vapour formed after smelting zinc ore using specifically designed retorts with condensers and furnaces. The zinc vapour could be cooled down drastically to get a melt that could solidify to zinc metal. The Rasaratnakara, Nagarjuna describes this method of production of zinc.

• Zawar Zinc mines using downward distillation process to produce metallic zinc.

त्रपु ॥ Tin