Yoga and Its Impact on Emotional Intelligence

Introduction

One of the important preoccupations of top management is the improvement of managerial performance. Over the last several decades management researchers have developed constructs to identify the factors that influence managerial performance, and have sought to provide a framework to explain performance. In this context, there is a popular perception that individuals of seemingly average intelligence often do well in their professional and personal lives, whereas people with high IQ often struggle with life’s challenges. Therefore, it would be useful to question the assumption that general intelligence is a sufficiently good predictor of success in life. Earlier researchers have suggested that other attributes may be better determinants (Goleman, 1995; Sternberg, 1993, 1996; Tapia, 2001). There is a vast repository of knowledge and accumulated experience in India on the role of yoga as a way of life in enabling individuals to lead successful and satisfied lives (see for example Becker, 2000; Srinivas, 1994). More specifically, the Bhagavad Gita, which explicates on yoga, sees that yoga begets high efficiency in work (Swami Ranganathananda, 2000), opening up possibilities of connections with managerial performance. This paper builds on the thread suggested above, utilising the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) defined by earlier researchers to measure managerial performance,

and explores the yoga way of life as a potential tool to influence the EI of individuals in a study conducted with managers of a large organisation. To the best of our knowledge there has been no previous attempt in this direction. The paper is organised as follows: In the next section we

introduce the concept of EI and motivate the use of this construct by discussing the key findings from earlier research. An introduction to the yoga way of life and its usefulness in improving EI in particular, and managerial performance and satisfaction levels in general follows in the next section. The details of the empirical work carried out as part of this study, and the results, key findings, and their implications are discussed in the later sections. Our study suggests that the yoga way of life could be a potential contributor to improving the performance of managers, and improving their satisfaction levels. Although the results are based on a single study with a sample of 60 managers from one enterprise, the results are encouraging. Our study motivates further research into this aspect in multiple settings, and the generalisation of the results obtained in the study.

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) is ‘a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate between them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action’ (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p 5). Goleman (2000) identifies five components of EI self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill (Exhibit 1). An alternative framework as defined by the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence (2004) is presented in Exhibit 2. In a later work Mayer and Salovey defined EI as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer & Salovey, 1997, p 5). Their definition of EI

refers to the underlying intelligence factors that they feel are necessary in order to develop emotional competence (EC) skills. While the definition of EI is useful for making a distinction between general intelligence and emotional intelligence, the concept of EC is relevant if we have to talk about using EI for organisational success. The EC framework identifies two main categories personal competence and social competence with three clusters in the first category and two in the second. Exhibit 2 shows the major dimensions that form the basis of the framework. A comparison of the dimensions considered by Goleman (1998) and the framework offered by the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence (2004) reveals many similarities, and Goleman’s influence on the latter is evident. An analysis of these definitions and characteristics of EI leads us to conclude that EI is different from traditional views of intelligence based on cognitive factors suggesting a different kind of aptitude that is founded entirely on noncognitive aspects of behaviour (Goleman, 2000). Goleman’s research, conducted in 200 large, global companies reveals that EIdespecially at the highest levels of a companydis the sine qua non for leadership (Goleman, 2000). A person can have first class training, an incisive

mind, and a large supply of good ideas, but without EI it is unlikely that s/he will make a great leader. Goleman (1998) reports that emotional quotient (EQ) is twice as important as technical skills and intelligence quotient (IQ) for success in jobs at all levels, more so at the highest level in

a company. Goleman suggests that the difference between star performers and average ones in senior leadership positions can be attributed more to EQ factors than to cognitive abilities. Emotional quotient has a champion in none other than Mahatma Gandhi who opined, ‘I know that

ultimately one is guided not by the intellect, but by the heart. The heart accepts a conclusion for which the intellect subsequently finds reasoning. Man often finds reason

Exhibit 1 The five components of emotional intelligence at work.

Definition Hallmarks

Self-awareness The ability to recognise and understand one’s moods,

emotions and drives, as well as their effect on others

Self-confidence

Realistic self assessment

Self deprecating sense of humour

Self-regulation The ability to control or redirect disruptive

impulses and moods; comfort with ambiguity

A propensity to suspend judgmentdto think

before acting

Trustworthiness and integrity

Openness to change

Motivation A passion to work for reasons that go beyond

money or status

A propensity to pursue goals with energy

and persistence

Strong drive to achieve

Optimism, even in the face of failure

Organisational commitment

Empathy The ability to understand the emotional

makeup of other people

Skill in treating people according to their

emotional reactions

Expertise in building and retaining talent

Cross-cultural sensitivity

Service to clients and customers

Social skill Proficiency in managing relationships and

building networks

The ability to find common ground and

build rapport

Effectiveness in leading change

Persuasiveness

Expertise in building and leading teams

Source: Goleman (2000).

Exhibit 2 Framework for emotional intelligence.

Personal competence Social competence

Self-awareness Emotional awareness

Accurate self assessment

Self confidence

Leveraging diversity

Political awareness

Social awareness Empathy

Service orientation

Developing others

Self-regulation Self control

Trustworthiness

Conscientiousness

Adaptability

Innovativeness

Social skills Influence

Communication

Leadership

Change catalyst

Conflict management

Building bonds

Collaboration and cooperation

Team capabilities

Self-motivation Achievement drive

Commitment

Initiative

Optimism

Source: Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence (2004).

in support of whatever he wants to do’ (in Chakraborty & Chakraborty, 2008, p 41). Researchers have long debated whether leaders are born or made. One can see a similar debate about EI. Are people born with certain levels of empathy, or do they acquire empathy as a result of life’s experiences? It appears that the answer is ‘both’. Scientific inquiry strongly suggests that there is a genetic component to EI, and psychological and developmental research indicate that nurture plays a role as well. While the debate on the relative influence of nature and nurture continues, research and practice clearly demonstrate that EI can be learned (Goleman, 2000). Yoga way of life and its relevance to emotional intelligence Yoga way of life Yoga is one of the six foundations of Indian philosophy and has been used for millennia to study, explain, and experience the complexities of the mind and human existence (Feuerstein, 1998). Patanjali, an ancient yoga sage, in his Yoga Sutras, defined yoga as a technique used to still the mental fluctuations of the mind to reach the central reality of the true self (Iyengar, 1966). Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras outline a skilful way of conducting life that fosters moderation and harmony (Becker, 2000). These guidelines, which include ethical and moral standards of living in addition to postural and breathing exercises, can be used to foster spiritual growth and evolve one’s consciousness.

The yoga way of life encompasses the philosophy of

Karma yoga (path of detached action), Jnana yoga

(knowledge of self), Bhakti yoga (trust in the supreme

order), and Raja yoga (a prescribed set of eight steps also

known as Ashtanga yoga). Karma yoga is the path of

focusing on the action on hand without selfishness, ego and

carelessness as prescribed by Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad

Gita (Swami Ranganathananda, 2000). Jnana yoga is the

path of knowledge of self (atman) propagated by Adi

Shankaracharya through an interpretation of the Upanishads,

considered the most ancient books of Indian wisdom.

Bhakti yoga is the path of total surrender to the supreme

power which is based on deep rooted faith in God’s justice

system. Raja yoga is the path of control of mind though the

practice of Ashtanga yoga or the eight fold path given by

the sage Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras (Swami Satyananda

Saraswati, 1976). The eight steps of Ashtanga yoga are

yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana,

dhyana and samadhi (see Swami Satyananda Saraswati,

1976).

Based on a review of the literature, we hypothesise that

practising the yoga way of life may bring about a complete

transformation of one’s personality, on the physical,

mental, emotional and spiritual levels.

Yoga psychology conceives of the self in terms of different

levels of being. The inner-most core (atman) is covered by

five layers. These layers correspond to a step-wise ladder,

leading inward to the atman. The journey inward forms the

basis of growth and developmentdthe biological evolution

from protozoan to man, the psychological evolution from

child to adult, and the enhancement of consciousness from

cognitive to universal consciousness, wherein there is no

ego, and there is the realisation that the concerns and needs

of all people are the same, that what is good for one is good

for all. In this growth process, feelings and emotions are

accepted as having a place in the general scheme; they are

not considered wrong or repressed but are transformed and

redirected (Srinivas, 1994).

Chakraborty and Chakraborty (2008) see the human

personality as a composite of four subtle variables: reason,

will, emotion and conscience. In order to integrate the

personality, these four factors must be habituated to work

in harmony instead of working at cross purposes, and this

requires effort. Further, the expression ‘integrated

personality’ is often employed to imply the same characteristics

that are expected of a holistic, self-possessed

Personality.