Changes

== Arsha Vyavasaya ==

== Arsha Vyavasaya ==

Agriculture is an age old practice and ancient Indians had good knowledge of soil, seeds and sowing method including transplantation, seasons of plantation, use of pesticide, manuring and irrigation. Post-harvest operations of crops, for consumption like grinding, pounding, winnowing, domestic operation like baking, firing, grilling, steaming, cooking under pressure, churning butter and kitchen utensils etc were common. The Soma juice and other fermented drinks with details of base materials, ferments and manufacturing techniques were known from ancient times.

Agriculture is an age old practice and ancient Indians had good knowledge of soil, seeds and sowing method including transplantation, seasons of plantation, use of pesticide, manuring and irrigation. Post-harvest operations of crops, for consumption like grinding, pounding, winnowing, domestic operation like baking, firing, grilling, steaming, cooking under pressure, churning butter and kitchen utensils etc were common. The Soma juice and other fermented drinks with details of base materials, ferments and manufacturing techniques were known from ancient times.

=== कृषकः ॥ Farmer ===

=== कृषकः ॥ Farmer ===

Farmers are the central and integral part of an agricultural system. No one can even think of agricultural practices sans farmers. Hence, farmers have been highly placed in Sanskrit literature. Farmers have been referred to as owners of the cultivable lands namely Ksetrapati (क्षेत्रपतिः). Apart from Kṛṣaka (कृषकः), he is also called as Krsika (कृषिकः), Kṛṣīvala (कृषीवलः), Karṣaka (कर्षकः) etc. The word ‘Kināśa’ has also been used for farmer in Vedas. Indra and other devatas, were the first farmers; an anecdote from the Shrutis.<blockquote>एत मुत्यं मधुना संयुतं यवम् । सरस्वत्या अधिमना वचर्क्रुषुः । इन्द्र असी त्सीरपतिः शतक्रतुः । कीनाशा आसन्मरुतः सुदानवः । ७ (Tait. Brah. 2.4.8)<ref>Taittriya Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4 Kanda 2 Prapathaka 4])</ref></blockquote>Summary: In olden times when Prajapati was ruling the land, Indra who performed a hundred asvamedha yajnas, performed agricultural activities with the help of Marut ganas for tilling, sowing the yava seeds, and irrigating with the sweetened waters of Sarasvati river.<ref>Ganapati Sastry, Uppuluri. (2000) ''Vedasara Ratnavali. Dvitiya Bhaga.'' Hyderabad: Amba Communicatons (Pages 504 - 510)</ref>

Farmers are the central and integral part of an agricultural system. No one can even think of agricultural practices sans farmers. Hence, farmers have been highly placed in Sanskrit literature. About land ownership Atharvaveda (3.17.5) clearly mentions that those actually working in the fields are the real owners of the lands. Farmers have been referred to as owners of the cultivable lands as Ksetrapati (क्षेत्रपतिः) though this term refers to the deity of agriculture in Rigveda (4.57). Apart from Kṛṣaka (कृषकः), a farmer is also called as Krsika (कृषिकः), Kṛṣīvala (कृषीवलः), Karṣaka (कर्षकः) etc. The word ‘Kināśa’ has also been used for farmer in Vedas. Indra and other devatas, were the first farmers; an anecdote from the Shrutis.<blockquote>एत मुत्यं मधुना संयुतं यवम् । सरस्वत्या अधिमना वचर्क्रुषुः । इन्द्र असी त्सीरपतिः शतक्रतुः । कीनाशा आसन्मरुतः सुदानवः । ७ (Tait. Brah. 2.4.8)<ref>Taittriya Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4 Kanda 2 Prapathaka 4])</ref></blockquote>Summary: In olden times when Prajapati was ruling the land, Indra who performed a hundred asvamedha yajnas, performed agricultural activities with the help of Marut ganas for tilling, sowing the yava seeds, and irrigating with the sweetened waters of Sarasvati river.<ref>Ganapati Sastry, Uppuluri. (2000) ''Vedasara Ratnavali. Dvitiya Bhaga.'' Hyderabad: Amba Communicatons (Pages 504 - 510)</ref>

Describing the significance of farmer, a seer of Ṛgveda says-We will be victorious and happy with the association of our friend and owner of the field-Kṣetrapati. Let the owner of the field bestow upon us cattle, horses and nourishment.56 A seer of Yajurveda salutes owner of the land-क्षेत्र र् िं पतये नमः।57 <ref>Dr. Dhananjay Vasudeo Dvivedi, (2017) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331889740_Concept_of_Irrigation_as_Depicted_in_Sanskrit_Texts Concept of Irrigation as Depicted in Sanskrit Texts] in Samskrta Vimarsah 2017 (Vol 12)</ref>

Brhatparasara says that a farmer favours all living beings (by supplying food grains) and works for the fulfillment all yajnas and for filling the treasury of a king (by paying taxes and enabling others to pay taxes). The farmer nourishes the ancestors (manes), various deities and people in general,<ref name=":2">Dwivedi, Dhananjay Vasudeo. ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322745690_Development_of_Agriculture_in_Ancient_India Development of Agriculture in Ancient India]''  in Sanskruti Darpan, Issue 54, Jan. 2018</ref><blockquote>सर्वसत्वोपकाराय सर्वयज्ञोपसिद्धये। नृपस्य कोशवृद्ध्यर्थ जायते कृषिकृन्नरः।। पितृदेवमनुष्याणां पुष्टये स्यात् कृषीवलः। (Brht. Para. 5.159)</blockquote>Pāṇini mentions three kinds of farmers in Ashtadhyayi sutra नञ्-दुः-सुभ्यो हलि-सक्थ्योरन्यातरस्याम् (5.4.121), which according to Kasikavrtti<ref>Kashikavritti of Panini's Ashtadhyayi ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4% Adhyaya 5])</ref> is explained as follows.

'''Socio-economic situation''': The Atharvaveda gives importance to the education of farmers for the country to attain strong economy. The farmers educated in Varta Vidya can produce more in the field. According to Atharvaveda, in the country where the Vārtā is not advertised and popularized the farmers not educated, there will be no good yield in the fields. Farmers will not be able to get crops in plenty. Thus the economic condition of the individual and also of the nation becomes weak. It is emphasized in Kautilya's Arthashastra<ref>Shamasastry, R. (1910) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translated into English.'' (Page 12-13)</ref>, that the king can hold control his citizens and the enemies by means of the treasury and the army obtained solely through Varta. Agriculture, cattle breeding and trade constitute Varta.

Atharvaveda says that those actually working in the fields are the real owner of the lands.58 Bṛhatpārāśara says that a farmer favours all living beings by supplying food grains to them through his noble service in the field. All sacrifices depend upon farmers. Farmer helps to fill the treasury of a king by paying himself the taxes and making others able to pay tax. The farmer feeds ancestors (manes), various deities and people-

 

Farming first requires fertile soil. Cultivation areas in different phases of history are thus traced to fertile soils like, mountain clay, alluvial soils of river plain and black cotton soils found in different geographical areas of India. The concept of rivers and their soils supporting agriculture is not unknown.  

 

 

Ahali-Farmers who do not have their own ploughs.

 

Suhali-Farmers who are in possession of good land or ploughs.

Durhali-Farmers who have old ploughs.

The fertile lower basins of the Saptasindhu, seven rivers, of Punjab were highly esteemed for bounteous crops.<blockquote>तस्येदिमे प्रवणे सप्त सिन्धवो वयो वर्धन्ति वृषभस्य शुष्मिणः ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.43.3)</blockquote>River sides were considered fertile. It is well known that the vast tracts of land irrigated by the rivers such as Ganga in the northern plains and Godavari and Krishna in the southern part of the Indian peninsula are dotted with human settlements dating far back into time. People are stated to have selected their routes of journey by the river-sides. The Rigveda recognizes two types of land. These are fertile or apnasvati and arid or aartana.<blockquote>स हि शर्धो न मारुतं तुविष्वणिरप्नस्वतीषू॒र्वरास्विष्टनिरार्तनास्विष्टनि: । (Rig. Veda. 1.127.6)</blockquote>The former is marshy or riverine tract, known as anupa and the latter, arid, known as jangala. Usara (alkaline) and anusara (non-alkaline, i.e., cultivable land) are the two divisions of land found in the Sutra literature. Land was alternatively used as arable land called Kshetra (cultivated) and as fallow called as Khila or Khilya (tilled but uncultivated for some time) to maintain the soil's potentiality. Fallow land had different functions: pasture ground and ground for cowshed. Both the practices contributed natural fertilization of the soil by cow droppings.<ref name=":3" />

The Atharvaveda gives importance to the education of farmers for the country to attain strong economy. The farmers educated in Vārtā Vidyā can produce more in the field. According to Atharvaveda, in the country where the Vārtā is not advertised and popularized

Vrkshayurveda of Surapala has a separate section on bhuminirupana or determining the ground. There are other classifications based on color (varna) and taste (rasa) of the soil.  

 

=== क्षेत्रम् ॥ Kshetra (Land) ===

|+Various Classifications of Soil<ref name=":1" />

Farming first requires fertile soil. Cultivation areas in different phases of history are thus traced to fertile soils like, mountain clay, alluvial soils of river plain and black cotton soils found in different geographical areas of India. The concept of rivers and their soils supporting agriculture is not unknown.  

| rowspan="2" |jangala (dry or arid)

| rowspan="2" |Anupa (wet land)

|Lavana (saline)

| rowspan="2" |samanya (moderate humidity land)

In a soil which is even (sama), contiguous to water, full of sprouts of green trees and grass, trees of all kinds thrive when planted at proper places. The land which is of moderate humidity (sddhdrana) and not dry (Jangala) nor wet (anupa) is good and ail kinds of trees grow on it without doubt.

The fertile lower basins of the Saptasindhu, seven rivers, of Punjab were highly esteemed for bounteous crops.<blockquote>तस्येदिमे प्रवणे सप्त सिन्धवो वयो वर्धन्ति वृषभस्य शुष्मिणः ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.43.3)</blockquote>River sides were considered fertile. It is well known that the vast tracts of land irrigated by the rivers such as Ganga in the northern plains and Godavari and Krishna in the southern part of the Indian peninsula are dotted with human settlements dating far back into time. People are stated to have selected their routes of journey by the river-sides.  

The Arthashastra (2.24.22) says that a region where the foam strikes (river bank) (phenaaghaata) is suited for creeper fruits; regions on the outskirts of overflows (parivahanta) for long pepper, grapes and sugarcanes; those on the borders of wells (kupaparyanta) for vegetables and roots; those on the borders of moist beds of lakes (haraniparyanta) for green grasses; and ridges (paalya) for plants reaped by cutting, such as perfume plants, medicinal herbs, usihira grass and others.

In ancient India there were special terms to refer to different types of land. Of these, many were based on their properties and characteristics. '''Amarakosa''' mentions the various terms which include bhumi (soil in general), मृत्सा (mrtsa । an excellent soil), उर्वरा (urvara । a fertile soil for all sorts of crops), ऊषः (oosha । salt ground), ऊषर (ooshara । a spot with lime soil), मरु (maru । a region devoid of water), खिला अप्रहते (khila or aprahata। untilled or waste land), नड्वान् (nadvan), कुमुद्वान् (kumudvan), वेतस्वान् (vetasvan) and शाद्वलः (shadvala) describe a land abounding in reeds, waterlilies, ratans or green grass), पङ्किलः (pankila । clayey or muddy soil), अनूपं (anuupa । land contiguous to water), sarkarila (soil full of stony or similar modules), and siktila (sandy soil).<blockquote>मृन्मृत्तिका प्रशस्ता तु मृत्सा मृत्स्ना च मृत्तिका ।। उर्वरा सर्वसस्याढ्या स्यादूषः क्षारमृत्तिका ।।</blockquote><blockquote>ऊषवानूषरो द्वावप्यन्यलिङ्गौ स्थलं स्थली ।। समानौ मरुधन्वानौ द्वे खिलाप्रहते समे ।। (Amar. Kosha. 2.1.9-12)</blockquote><blockquote>त्रिष्वागोष्ठान्नडप्राये नड्वान्नड्वल इत्यपि ।।  कुमुद्वान्कुमुदप्राये वेतस्वान्बहुवेतसे ।। </blockquote><blockquote>शाद्वलः शादहरिते सजम्बाले तु पङ्किलः ।। जलप्रायमनूपं स्यात्पुंसि कच्छस्तथाविधः ।। </blockquote><blockquote>स्त्री शर्करा शर्करिलः शार्करः शर्करावति ।। देश एवादिमावेववमुन्नेयाः सिकतावति ।। (Amar. Kosha. 2.1.19-24)<ref>Amarakosha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Kanda 2])</ref></blockquote>A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.

The above discussion clearly shows that observations of the natural phenomenon by the farmer are far more holistic in determining the nature of the soil to arrive at an appropriate crop to be sown.  

* Soil pH states were identified: Usara (alkaline) and anusara (non-alkaline, i.e., cultivable land) are the two divisions of land found in the Sutra literature.9<ref name=":3" />

* Moisture content of lands were recognized; land was generally classified into three : jaangala, anupa and sadharana, on the basis of the moisture in it. Jaangala is dry land, anupa is wet land and sadharana has moderate or average moisture.<ref name=":1" />

* Revitalizing the soil: Land was alternatively used as arable land called Kshetra (cultivated) and as fallow called as Khila or Khilya (tilled but uncultivated for some time) to maintain the soil's potentiality. Fallow land had different functions: pasture ground and ground for cowshed.12 Both the practices contributed natural fertilization of the soil by cow droppings.<ref name=":3" />

=== कृषिः ॥ Tillage ===

=== कृषिः ॥ Tillage ===

The most important of the agricultural tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.     

The most important of the agricultural tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.     

Ploughing was regarded as an important process in cultivation. lt is observed in the Satapatha Brahmana (8.2.2.5) that furrow is like the womb in which  seeds are sown and casting seeds into unploughed field is like sowing seeds into any place other than the womb.<ref name=":1">Bag, A. K. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Pages 391 - )</ref><blockquote>प्रजापतेर्विस्रस्तात्सर्वाः प्रजा मध्यत उदक्रामन्नेतस्या अधि योनेस्ता एनमेतस्मिन्नात्मनः प्रतिहिते प्रापद्यन्त - ८.२.२.[५] (Shat. Brah. 8.2.2.5)<ref>Shatapata Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Kanda 8 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>The Krshiparasara attaches great importance to ploughing. It raises the act to an auspicious rite, designated as '''halaprasaarana (हलप्रसारणम्''' '''। commencement of ploughing)''' which is necessary for the success of cultivation.<blockquote>हलप्रसारणं येन न कृतं मृगकुम्भयोः । कुतस्तस्य कृषाणस्य प्हलाशा कृषिकर्मणि ॥ (१५२) (Kris. Para. 152)<ref>Krshi Parashara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D?wprov=srpw1_0 Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Further it describes the nakshatras, the days of the week and lagna signs (astrological details) when this important process should be carried out.  

Ploughing was regarded as an important process in cultivation. lt is observed in the Satapatha Brahmana (8.2.2.5) that furrow is like the womb in which  seeds are sown and casting seeds into unploughed field is like sowing seeds into any place other than the womb.<ref name=":1">Bag, A. K. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Pages 391 - )</ref><blockquote>प्रजापतेर्विस्रस्तात्सर्वाः प्रजा मध्यत उदक्रामन्नेतस्या अधि योनेस्ता एनमेतस्मिन्नात्मनः प्रतिहिते प्रापद्यन्त - ८.२.२.[५] (Shat. Brah. 8.2.2.5)<ref>Shatapata Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Kanda 8 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>The Krshiparasara attaches great importance to ploughing. It raises the act to an auspicious rite, designated as '''halaprasaarana (हलप्रसारणम्''' '''। commencement of ploughing)''' which is necessary for the success of cultivation.<blockquote>हलप्रसारणं येन न कृतं मृगकुम्भयोः । कुतस्तस्य कृषाणस्य प्हलाशा कृषिकर्मणि ॥ (१५२) (Kris. Para. 152)<ref name=":4">Krshi Parashara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D?wprov=srpw1_0 Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Further it describes the nakshatras, the days of the week and lagna signs (astrological details) when this important process should be carried out.  

A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.  

A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.  

* Sita or Furrow marks were made in grid pattern: Twelve lines made by plough drawn by twelve oxen were arranged in such a way that three lines arranged vertically, three running over them horizontally and the other six made crisscross.<ref name=":3" />  

* Sita or Furrow marks were made in grid pattern: Twelve lines made by plough drawn by twelve oxen were arranged in such a way that three lines arranged vertically, three running over them horizontally and the other six made crisscross.<ref name=":3" />  

* Deep ploughing brings out clods of earth from the soil and increases the fertility of the field. The Krshiparasara (verses 142-43) recommends ploughing to be done five times. The first ploughing gives wealth, the third the desired object, and the fifth a rich harvest.<ref name=":1" />

* Deep ploughing brings out clods of earth from the soil and increases the fertility of the field. The Krshiparasara (verses 142-43) recommends ploughing to be done five times. The first ploughing gives wealth, the third the desired object, and the fifth a rich harvest.<ref name=":1" />

* Mowing (matyam) was the post-plough operation.63

* Mowing (matyam) was the post-plough operation.  

=== Cropping System ===

=== Plantation ===

It includes sowing of seeds of different kinds in grid-pattered furrows64 and the methodology adopted for rotation of crops. Reaping, threshing, winnowing and storing are the post-cultivating processes, noticed from the period of the Rigveda. The Rigveda (10.101) presents a picturesque description from ploughing to reaping inclusive of irrigation. All the operations were carried out with laudatory song to the Visvadevas. Reaping was done with the help of sickle (srni) when the corns ripe. Thrashing the bundles of grain-stalks on the floor of granary (khala) and winnowing in winnowing-baskets (sthivi) were the different post sowing operations mentioned in the Rigveda. The Atharvaveda refers winnowing fan (surpa) in this connection. Grains (here barley) were stored in a vessel (urdara).65

It includes sowing of seeds of different kinds in grid-pattered furrows and the methodology adopted for rotation of crops. Reaping, threshing, winnowing and storing are the post-cultivating processes, noticed from the period of the Rigveda. The Rigveda (10.101) presents a picturesque description from ploughing to reaping inclusive of irrigation. All the operations were carried out with laudatory song to the Visvadevas. Reaping was done with the help of sickle (srni) when the corns ripe. Thrashing the bundles of grain-stalks on the floor of granary (khala) and winnowing in winnowing-baskets (sthivi) were the different post sowing operations mentioned in the Rigveda. The Atharvaveda refers to winnowing fan (surpa) in this connection. Grains (here barley) were stored in a vessel (urdara).<ref name=":3" />

 

=== Crop Specimens ===

=== Crop Specimens ===

(a) Rice (vrihi): Four cultivated varieties were seen, viz. black (krshna), white (shukla), quick-grown (aasu) and mahavrihi (large grained). The last two varieties were confined only to central India. The quick-grown variety appears to have been known as shastika (ripens within sixty days) in the later periods.   

(a) Rice (vrihi): Four cultivated varieties were seen, viz. black (krshna), white (shukla), quick-grown (aasu) and mahavrihi (large grained). The last two varieties were confined only to central India. The quick-grown variety appears to have been known as shastika (ripens within sixty days) in the later periods.   

(b) Wheat (godhu– ma);   

(b) Wheat (godhuma);   

(c) Barley (yava), and a species of it, upavaka;   

(c) Barley (yava), and a species of it, upavaka;   

Seasonal correlations with crops are enumerated in the Taittiriya Samhita. It presents a small crop chart containing four crops and their associated ripening seasons:  <blockquote>यवं ग्रीष्मायौषधीर्वर्षाभ्यो व्रीहीञ्छरदे माषतिलौ हेमन्तशिशिराभ्याम् । (Tait. Samh. 7.2.10.2). </blockquote>The hot season for barley (यव); autumn for rice; winter and cool season for beans and sesame. Barley ripened in summer was sown undoubtedly in winter as in present day. Likewise rice ripened in autumn used to be sown in the beginning of the rains. Beans and sesame planted at the time of summer rains were ripened in the winter and the cool season.<ref name=":3" />

Seasonal correlations with crops are enumerated in the Taittiriya Samhita. It presents a small crop chart containing four crops and their associated ripening seasons:  <blockquote>यवं ग्रीष्मायौषधीर्वर्षाभ्यो व्रीहीञ्छरदे माषतिलौ हेमन्तशिशिराभ्याम् । (Tait. Samh. 7.2.10.2). </blockquote>The hot season for barley (यव); autumn for rice; winter and cool season for beans and sesame. Barley ripened in summer was sown undoubtedly in winter as in present day. Likewise rice ripened in autumn used to be sown in the beginning of the rains. Beans and sesame planted at the time of summer rains were ripened in the winter and the cool season.<ref name=":3" />

=== Plant Protection Measures ===

=== Plant Protection Measures ===

The preventive measures to protect plants and crops included a few following methods which are used till date by the farmers. We see from the ancient texts that the knowledge of protection measures was well developed.

The preventive measures to protect plants and crops included a few following methods which are used till date by the farmers. We see from the ancient texts that the knowledge of protection measures was well developed.

# driving away the pest-bird by din and noise. The Rigveda (10.68.1) thus describes, “उदप्रुतो न वयो रक्षमाणा वावदतो अभ्रियस्येव घोषा: । Like the farmers make noise to drive away the birds from fields”.  

* driving away the pest-bird by din and noise. The Rigveda (10.68.1) thus describes, “उदप्रुतो न वयो रक्षमाणा वावदतो अभ्रियस्येव घोषा: । Like the farmers make noise to drive away the birds from fields”.  

# control by rotation of crops. The Taittiriya Samhita refers to rotation of crops. Obviously that practice also afforded natural prevention of crops from incest-pest.58

* control by rotation of crops. The Taittiriya Samhita refers to rotation of crops. Obviously that practice also afforded natural prevention of crops from incest-pest.58

Excepting bird no other pestiferous agents were known in the preceding period. A host of such elements infesting grains in the field and unfavourable natural phenomena causing harm to crops came to be known during the Atharvavedic period. The pests inclusive of natural phenomena were.59 a) Borer (tarda) indicating either insect or bird, hooked insect (saman. ka), noxious insect (upakvasa) and locust (patan. ga), b) Rodents (vyadvaras) and rats (a – khu) c) Reptiles d) Natural phenomenon like lightening and sun. Charms and spells formed the preventive and remedial measures. The late Vedic period introduced weed as pest in addition to those recognized in the Atharvaveda. Weed was particularly wheat-pest. Preventive and remedial measures were charms and spells in association with some substances appear to have pesticidal effects. These include: a) spreading of lead after furrowing, b) burying in field the metabolic product (grass) from the bowels of sacrificed cattle and some parts of particular plant substances. Weed control was also recommended by burying of several plantsubstances in the fields before sowing of seeds.60

Excepting bird no other pestiferous agents were known in the preceding period. A host of such elements infesting grains in the field and unfavourable natural phenomena causing harm to crops came to be known during the Atharvavedic period. The pests inclusive of natural phenomena were.59 a) Borer (tarda) indicating either insect or bird, hooked insect (saman. ka), noxious insect (upakvasa) and locust (patan. ga), b) Rodents (vyadvaras) and rats (a – khu) c) Reptiles d) Natural phenomenon like lightening and sun. Charms and spells formed the preventive and remedial measures. The late Vedic period introduced weed as pest in addition to those recognized in the Atharvaveda. Weed was particularly wheat-pest. Preventive and remedial measures were charms and spells in association with some substances appear to have pesticidal effects. These include: a) spreading of lead after furrowing, b) burying in field the metabolic product (grass) from the bowels of sacrificed cattle and some parts of particular plant substances. Weed control was also recommended by burying of several plantsubstances in the fields before sowing of seeds.60