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Farming first requires fertile soil. Cultivation areas in different phases of history are thus traced to fertile soils like, mountain clay, alluvial soils of river plain and black cotton soils found in different geographical areas of India. The concept of rivers and their soils supporting agriculture is not unknown.  

Farming first requires fertile soil. Cultivation areas in different phases of history are thus traced to fertile soils like, mountain clay, alluvial soils of river plain and black cotton soils found in different geographical areas of India. The concept of rivers and their soils supporting agriculture is not unknown.  

The fertile lower basins of the Saptasindhu, seven rivers, of Punjab were highly esteemed for bounteous crops.<blockquote>तस्येदिमे प्रवणे सप्त सिन्धवो वयो वर्धन्ति वृषभस्य शुष्मिणः ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.43.3)</blockquote>River sides were considered fertile. It is well known that the vast tracts of land irrigated by the rivers such as Ganga in the northern plains and Godavari and Krishna in the southern part of the Indian peninsula are dotted with human settlements dating far back into time. People are stated to have selected their routes of journey by the river-sides. The Rigveda recognizes two types of land. These are fertile or apnasvati and arid or aartana.<blockquote>स हि शर्धो न मारुतं तुविष्वणिरप्नस्वतीषू॒र्वरास्विष्टनिरार्तनास्विष्टनि: । (Rig. Veda. 1.127.6)</blockquote>The former is marshy or riverine tract, known as anupa and the latter, arid, known as jangala. Usara (alkaline) and anusara (non-alkaline, i.e., cultivable land) are the two divisions of land found in the Sutra literature.9 Land was alternatively used as arable land called Kshetra (cultivated) and as fallow called as Khila or Khilya (tilled but uncultivated for some time) to maintain the soil's potentiality. Fallow land had different functions: pasture ground and ground for cowshed.12 Both the practices contributed natural fertilization of the soil by cow droppings.<ref name=":3" />  

The fertile lower basins of the Saptasindhu, seven rivers, of Punjab were highly esteemed for bounteous crops.<blockquote>तस्येदिमे प्रवणे सप्त सिन्धवो वयो वर्धन्ति वृषभस्य शुष्मिणः ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.43.3)</blockquote>River sides were considered fertile. It is well known that the vast tracts of land irrigated by the rivers such as Ganga in the northern plains and Godavari and Krishna in the southern part of the Indian peninsula are dotted with human settlements dating far back into time. People are stated to have selected their routes of journey by the river-sides.  

 

In ancient India there were special terms to refer to different types of land. Of these, many were based on their properties and characteristics. '''Amarakosa''' mentions the various terms which include bhumi (soil in general), मृत्सा (mrtsa । an excellent soil), उर्वरा (urvara । a fertile soil for all sorts of crops), ऊषः (oosha । salt ground), ऊषर (ooshara । a spot with lime soil), मरु (maru । a region devoid of water), खिला अप्रहते (khila or aprahata। untilled or waste land), नड्वान् (nadvan), कुमुद्वान् (kumudvan), वेतस्वान् (vetasvan) and शाद्वलः (shadvala) describe a land abounding in reeds, waterlilies, ratans or green grass), पङ्किलः (pankila । clayey or muddy soil), अनूपं (anuupa । land contiguous to water), sarkarila (soil full of stony or similar modules), and siktila (sandy soil).<blockquote>मृन्मृत्तिका प्रशस्ता तु मृत्सा मृत्स्ना च मृत्तिका ।। उर्वरा सर्वसस्याढ्या स्यादूषः क्षारमृत्तिका ।।</blockquote><blockquote>ऊषवानूषरो द्वावप्यन्यलिङ्गौ स्थलं स्थली ।। समानौ मरुधन्वानौ द्वे खिलाप्रहते समे ।। (Amar. Kosha. 2.1.9-12)</blockquote><blockquote>त्रिष्वागोष्ठान्नडप्राये नड्वान्नड्वल इत्यपि ।।  कुमुद्वान्कुमुदप्राये वेतस्वान्बहुवेतसे ।। </blockquote><blockquote>शाद्वलः शादहरिते सजम्बाले तु पङ्किलः ।। जलप्रायमनूपं स्यात्पुंसि कच्छस्तथाविधः ।। </blockquote><blockquote>स्त्री शर्करा शर्करिलः शार्करः शर्करावति ।। देश एवादिमावेववमुन्नेयाः सिकतावति ।। (Amar. Kosha. 2.1.19-24)<ref>Amarakosha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Kanda 2])</ref></blockquote>A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.

* As mentioned above in Amarakosha, properties of soil was well known to people.

* Nature of soil was identified; as containing sarkara (salty), sikata (sandy) and ashman (stony) was recognised.

* Soil pH states were identified: Usara (alkaline) and anusara (non-alkaline, i.e., cultivable land) are the two divisions of land found in the Sutra literature.9<ref name=":3" />

* Revitalizing the soil: Land was alternatively used as arable land called Kshetra (cultivated) and as fallow called as Khila or Khilya (tilled but uncultivated for some time) to maintain the soil's potentiality. Fallow land had different functions: pasture ground and ground for cowshed.12 Both the practices contributed natural fertilization of the soil by cow droppings.<ref name=":3" />

=== कृषिः ॥ Tillage ===

=== कृषिः ॥ Tillage ===