Krshi Vijnana (कृषिविज्ञानम्)

Krshi Vijnana (Samskrit: कृषिविज्ञानम्) refers to the science of agriculture. Agriculture, farming and domestication of animals is one of the most ancient occupations of man. Agriculture came to be practiced when man gave up his nomadic habits and settled down in a place which had favorable climate and topography. Initially depending on wild roots, fruits, and seeds for his sustenance, man eventually adopted the practice of tilling the land to grow crops. Although when the ancient man starting farming practices is not completely ascertainable, evidence of agricultural practices in ancient Bharat are available from the worlds oldest texts, the Vedas. Agriculture is the foundation of human civilization.

It has been documented that early inhabitants of Bharatakhanda took to farming as their chief occupation supported by the archaeological evidence found in Indus Valley excavations. Discovery of charred rice grains, presence of wheat in the excavations present oldest records of developed agricultural practices.

Introduction

Video Courtesy : Prof. D.P. Mishra, Dept. of Aerospace Engg, IIT Kanpur

Food is the basic requirement of every living being on earth and our ancient texts have proclaimed that even devatas relay on food, which is offered sacredly in the form of havis.

अन्नाद्भवन्ति भूतानि पर्जन्यादन्नसंभवः । यज्ञाद्भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः ॥ (Bhag. Gita. 3.14)

All creatures (life) comes into being from Anna (food), and this food arises with the help of rain. Through yajnas we get rain, thus yajna gives rise to activity or karma.

Agricultural activities were thus designed to ensure food supply from rains as well as to maintain ecological sustainability; farmers over ages developed holistic scientific knowledge to ensure that goal.

A few perspectives about why ancient Bharat's people have given highest importance to agriculture is presented below

• India has 52% of cultivable land as compared to the world average. (unfortunately it is decreasing)
• Sunshine hours is quite high as compared to world average
• India has all the 15 major climatic regions
• Endowed with 10 Biodiversity regions
• Abundance of many species of flora and fauna
• Large livestock population
• Large number of rivers and water bodies

Apart from the above ecological perspectives, one may note that agriculture has great impact on the economy and growth of the country.

Over due course of time due to the human interventions of mostly abuse and misuse of the modern science and technology, all the above factors are rapidly depleting. In modern times overcrowding and population increase has lead to encroachment into the natural habitats, taking over of fertile agricultural lands for human habitation and economic activities along with insensitivity to ecological balance has led to disastrous climatic changes in a very short period of time.

Origin of Agriculture

According to the Markandeya Purana, Brahma was regarded as the first inventor of Agriculture. According to this Purana, in the beginning of the creation of the earth, the soil yielded almost all type of corns, vegetables and fruits etc. However, as the time passed, the soil became unproductive. Thereafter, Brahma churned the soil, and obtained various kinds of seeds. These seeds on their own accord started giving yields of corns, fruits etc., which at a later stage became unproductive. Then He brought the agriculture into practice. Seeing the ability of different classes of the people in the society he initiated one class of the people to do this profession of agriculture. Since then the agriculture depended on human toil.

However, according to the Atharvaveda2, Viṣṇu Purāṇa3, and Śrimad Bhāgvad Mahāpurāṇa4, a king named Pṛthu, the son of a king Vena was regarded as the inventor of agriculture. Pṛthu may be considered as a king who effectively brought the agriculture into practice. In the Atharvaveda, King Pṛthī Vainya has been said to be inventor of agriculture. It is he who for the first time did farming and grew grains.

Importance of Agriculture

It goes without saying that agriculture was given due importance in ancient India. Vedic seers knew that agriculture was the only option for food security. Food, as everybody knows, is basic necessity of human being. Agriculture is helpful is attaining all the four goals (पुरुषा र्थ चतुष्टय) of life. Human life is dependent on Anna and production of Anna is dependent of agriculture. Hence, agriculture is basic necessity of human life. Yajurveda says that one should make effort for producing abundant grains through agriculture.5 Men depend for their lives on agriculture-ते कृषषिं च सस्यिं च मनुष्य उपजीवषि।6 Speaking about the importance of agriculture, Vedic seer says-O gambler, stop gambling, and engage yourself in agriculture, which is regarded as most valuable wealth, so that you will earn wealth, happiness, cattle and happy married life. You respect this wealth and be content with this wealth-

अक्षैम थ दीव्यः कृषषषमत् कृषस्व षवत्ते रमस्व बहुमन्यम नः।

तत्र ग वः षकतव तत्र ज य तनमे षव चष्टे सषवत यमयथः।।7

The Ṛgveda further adds that the cultivator is bound to get plentiful crops and immense wealth.8

The Atharvaveda also highlights the importance of agriculture. Agricultural work used to be practiced by skilled persons. Poets and scholars took this occupation and did farming for happiness. Agriculture was a delighted occupation in which Gods like Indra and Puṣā were also engaged. Success in agriculture leads to success in life.9 The person possessing abundant food grains is respected as a great man in the society.10 Through agriculture one can acquire vigour, energy and power.11 In the Yajurveda and Taittirīya Saṃhitā agriculture is regarded as the means of human welfare. It is the source of prosperity and sustenance. It gives grain, strength and lustre.12 In Taittirīya Saṃhitā agriculture has been described as Chandas (metre).13 In other words, it is the music that fills human life with delight. Chandas also means covering. As agriculture keeps human beings with happiness, it is known as Chandas. Bṛhatpārāśara says that there is no other religion than agriculture and no profitable business other than agriculture-‘कृषेरन्यत्र नो धमो न ल भः कृषषतोऽन्यतः’14 It further

adds that there is no other means than agriculture for obtaining happiness, food, clothing, respect etc.15

Kāśyapīyakṛṣisūkti mentions that production of grains and other vegetation are the sole purpose of highest fulfilment of the earth. The rich earth full of vegetation is the cause of growth of living beings-

सस्य षदरेव मेषदन्य ः परोधमथः परिं यशः। सस्यपूर् थ वसुमती प्र षर्न िं प्र र्वषधथनी।।16

It further adds that it is the giver of all auspicious things, leading to the satisfaction of Gods especially with its perpetual power to produce grain and fountains of sweet water-

सवथमङ्गलद त्री च देव न िं तुषष्टद षयनी। षनत्यसस्य च मधुरजलस्र व षवशेषतः।।17

Sages with divine insight eulogize agricultural business as the basis of sacrifice and as life giver of living beings-

यज्ञ न मषप च ध रः प्र षर्न िं जीवद यकम्। कृषषकमथ प्रशिंसषि मुनयो षदव्यचक्षुसः।।18

Men should exert and devote themselves to farming whether they get farmlands from a king or purchase one for themselves-

नृप त् प्र प्तिं स्वतःक्रीत सस्यक्षेत्रिं तु म नव ः। सिंप्र प्य यत्नविश्च कृषषक यथकृत दर ः।।19

They are said to please gods and sages. Of all wealth, agriculture is the highest wealth-

देव न िं च मुनीन िं च मे मत ः प्रीषतद षयनः। घन न मषप सवेष िं कृषषरेव परिं धनम्।।20

As this wealth cannot be taken away by others, it is commended by everyone. Yielding profuse returns, it provides pure grains and other things which please Gods-

परैरग्र ह्यम षदष्टिं सवथश्ल घ्यिं मह फलम्। देव न िं प्रीषतजनक शुद्धद्रव्यप्रद षय तत्।।21

Keeping away dependence on others, always yielding wealth, it provides for the guests, deities, and one’s own family-

प रतन्त्र्यहरिं चैव षनत्यम लक्ष्मीषवल सकृतम्। तर् षतर्ीन िं देव न िं स्वकुटुम्बस्य जीवदम्।।22

Giving delight in several ways, the profession of farming is indeed praiseworthy. Any other livelihood involves dependence-

न न षवध नन्दकरिं कृषषकमथ प्रशस्यते। अतस्तदन्य वृषत्तस्तु प रतन्त्र्येर् गुषित ।।23

The natural inclination of people towards agriculture pleases Gods and be nurtured with special effort as it sustains life of all living beings-

कृषषप्रवृषत्तिं सवेष िं देव न िं प्रीषतद षयनीम्। यत्नतो रक्षयेयुस्त िं जीव न िं जीवनप्रद म्।।24

Sages are of the opinion that farming activity should be planned and undertaken in every community, in every country, in every rural part, and in every tableland-

वने जनपदे देशे क्षेत्रे ग्र म्ये भृगोस्तटे। कृषषप्रवृषत्तिं सिंकल्प् िं मन्यते षह मुनीश्वर ः।।25

Sages of ancient times have pursued agricultural activities even on open yards of cottages with a view to benefit all beings-

पुर तनैस्तु मुषनषभरुटज ङ्गर्भूषमषु। कृषषकमथकृतिं लोके सवथप्र षर्षहत षर्थषभः।।26

Undertaking in agriculture is to be pursued by all great men of sharp intelligence to get permanent joy-

अतः कृष्य द नमेतत् सवेः पुरुषपुङ्गवैः। सूक्ष्मधीषभषरह सेव्यिं श श्वत नन्दहेतवे।।27

Kṛṣiparāśara has discussed the importance of agriculture. It says that even a learned Brahmin who is proficient in all the four Vedas, who recites Śāstras and is intelligent, when is overpowered by Alakṣmī, is reduced to humiliation caused be begging for food with folded hands. And only through farming, one however ceases to be a suitor. By practicing agriculture alone one is bound to be bhūpati (master of the earth). People even having surplus of gold, silver, jewels and garments have to solicit farmers as earnestly as a devotee would pray God. People in spite of having gold ornaments in their necks, ears and hands have to suffer from hunger in absence of food. Food is life, food is also the strength, food is everything. The divines, the demons, and all human beings depend on food for surviving. Food, verily, comes from grains and grains cannot be available without agriculture. Therefore, leaving everything else one should strive for farming. Blessed is agriculture, holy is agriculture, and agriculture is life of all living creatures-

चतुवेद िगो षवप्रः श स्त्रव दी षवचक्षर्ः। अलक्ष्म्य गृह्यते सोऽषप प्र र्थन ल घव षितः।।

एकध च पुनः कृष्य प्र र्थको नैव ज यते। कृष्य षितो षह लोकेऽषिन् भूय देकश्च भूपषतः।।

सुवर्थरौप्यम षर्क्यवसनैरषप पूषरत ः। तर् षप प्र र्थयन्त्येव कृषक न् भक्ततृष्णय ।।

कण्ठे कर्े च हस्ते च सुवर्ं षवद्यते यषद। उपव सस्तर् ऽषप स्य दन्न भ वेन देषहन म्।।

अन्निं प्र र् बलिं च न्नमन्निं सव थर्थस धनम्। देव सुरमनुष्यश्च सवे च न्नोपजीषवनः।।

अन्निं षह ध न्यसञ्ज तिं ध न्यिं कृष्य षवन न च। ति त्सवं पषरत्यज्य कृषषिं यत्नेन क रयेत्।।

कृषषधथन्य कृषषमेध्य जिून िं जीवनिं कृषषः।28

Various sūktas of Ṛgveda such as Kṣetrapati29, Parjanya30, Pṛthvī31, Go32, Āpaḥ33, Akṣa34, Viśvedevā35 and Araṇyanī36 have well described in the importance of agriculture. Similarly various sūktas of Atharvaveda including Kṛṣi37, Anna38, Anna samṛddhi39 have talked about the significance of agriculture.

Here one sūkta namely Kṛṣi sūkta from Atharvaveda is quoted in totality-

सीर ̍ युञ्जषि क॒वयोो॑ युग षव तो॑िते॒ पृर्ो॑क्। धीर ो॑ दे॒वेषुो॑ सुम्न॒यो।। 40

i.e. the men of wisdom and firm attitude bind plough fast and harness the yokes on the side to attain the wealth of grains among the men of learning.

यु॒नक्त॒ सीर ॒ षव यु॒ग तो॑नोत कृ॒ते योनौो॑ वपते॒ह बीजो॑म्।

षव॒र जः॒ श्नुषष्टः॒ सभो॑र असन्नो॒ नेदीो॑य॒ इत् सृ॒ण्यः प॒क्वम यो॑वन्।।41

i.e. O’ Ye peasants; lay on the plough, harness the yokes, sow seeds in the races formed, and when the earnings are fraught with plenty of grain and after sometimes when grains are ripe reap with sickle.

ल ङ्गो॑लिं पवी॒रवो॑त् सु॒शीमिंो॑ सोम॒सत्सो॑रु। उषदद् वो॑पतु॒ ग मषविंो॑ प्र॒स् ो॑वद् रर्॒व हो॑निं॒ पीवो॑रीं च प्रफ॒व्यथम्।।42

i.e. The sharp-shared plough, that brings out happiness and that is furnished with traces and with stilts, becomes the means of having cow, sheep, rapid chariot and strong blooming woman.

इन्द्ः॒ सीत िं॒ षन गृो॑ह्ण तु॒ त िं पू॒ष षभ रो॑क्षतु। स नः॒ पयो॑स्वती दुह ॒मुत्तो॑र मुत्तर िं॒ सम ो॑म्।।43

May Indra, the air with rain make furrow normal, may the Sun preserve its fertility. May the well irrigated yield us good crop through each succeeding year.

शु॒निं सुो॑फ ॒ल षव तुो॑दिु॒ भूषमिंो॑ शु॒निं की॒न श ॒ अनुो॑ यिु व ॒ह न्।

शुन ो॑सीर ह॒षवष ॒ तोशो॑म न सुषपप्प॒ल ओषो॑धीः कतथम॒िै।।44

Let the plough-shares turn up the plough-land in happiness and let hard-working ploughers go with oxen in happiness. Air and Sun nourishing the earth with water, cause our plants, bear abundant food.

शु॒निं व ॒ह ः शु॒निं नरःो॑ शु॒निं कृो॑पतु ल ङ्गो॑लम्। शु॒निं वो॑र॒त्र बो॑ध्यि िं शु॒नमष्ट् ॒मुषदो॑ङ्गय।।45

Let the bulls and horses pull the ploughs happily, let the men work happily, let the plough turn out land nicely, let the traces be bound and let the driving goad be happily plied.

शुन ो॑सीरे॒ह िो॑ मे जुषेर् म्। यद् षद॒षव च॒क्रर्ुः॒ पय॒स्तेने॒म मुपो॑ षसञ्चतम्।।46

Let the air and Sun be favourable to me. They bedew this Earth with water which they create in sky.

सीते॒ वन्द ो॑महे त् ॒व थचीो॑ सुभगे भव। यर् ो॑ नः सु॒मन ॒ असो॒ यर् ो॑ नः सुफ॒ल भुवःो॑।।47

We praise the furrow and let it be directly favourable for us. May it be fruitful for us.

घृ̱तेन̱ सीत ̱ मधु̍न ̱ सम̍क्त ̱ षवश्वै̍दे̱वैरनु̍मत म̱रुषभः̍।

स नः̍ सीते̱ पय̍स ̱भ्य व̍वृ̱त्स्वोजथ̍स्वती घृ̱तव̱त् षपि̍म न ।।48

Let the furrow be beswed with butter and honey and be made favourable for crops by all the physical forces and various kinds of airs. Full of grains and enriched with butter let this furrow make us happy with various cereals.

In effect, the agricultural work was considered to be pious job.49 The Ṛgveda directs even the elite class of the society to perform the job of agriculture as it was considered to be equivalent of Yajña.50 Ṛgveda mentions some experts in agriculture who knew how to increase the output of agriculture.51 According to the Atharvaveda, food is the basic necessity for human beings. But the availability of food depends of agriculture. People well versed in agricultural activities were considered to be highly respectable and successful in their endeavour.52 Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa53 and Mahābhārata54 are also of the opinion that people engaged in agriculture are bound to lead a happy and prosperous life. According to Śukranīti, agriculture of a land irrigated with river water is the best means of one’s livelihood.55

Modern Agriculture

In a stark contrast to the traditional agricultural practices, modern systems of agriculture use genetically engineered and/or hybrid seeds of single crop variety, technologically driven implements and equipments such as tractors, shredders, spreaders etc, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and water to produce large amounts of single crop. A few characteristics of modern agriculture include the following

• It has higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural area
• It has higher use of inputs such as capital, labor, fertilizers, pesticides, plant growth regulators, and mechanization for higher crop yields per unit land area. Many gadgets and implements are needed and higher electricity and fuel costs are involved.
• Indiscriminate usage of fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides and other such chemicals destroy the ecological balance hurting the other agronomy dependent creatures such as bees, birds, snakes, and frogs.
• Hazards of air, water, earth pollution are rampant and world environmental activists have been fighting with governing bodies to bring these levels down.
• It involves mostly single crop cultivation which is not always advantageous ecologically and economically.
• Storage of grains (air-conditioned godowns, preservatives etc) also involve high costs, increasing the price of food production further.
• It demands detailed analysis of growing conditions including weather, soil, water, weeds and pests.
• An individual or small community effort is gradually turned into an mechanized industry whose terms and conditions are now dictated by a few rich individuals controlling this modern system. Days are not far off when a farmer is an employee in his own farm and has to buy his own produce in such conditions for his family needs.
• It relies on innovation in agricultural machinery and farming methods, genetic technology, techniques for achieving economies of scale logistics. What was originally in-line with natural processes now involves industrial scale technical education.
• It involves large data collection and analysis technology.
• Ease of trading practices and taxing system of farmers has to undergo an enormous change to bring down the cost of agricultural produce both of domestic and foreign exports.

Ramifications of such models of agriculture such as widespread pollution of air, water and food are visible on the entire ecosystem. As much as modern outlook with technology and education is required, it has be used minimally with caution. A dire need for research on traditional agricultural practices to find out the ethos behind it and adopt it in the modern times has become the need of the hour.

Agriculture as in Vedas

Agricultural practices have been described in the vedic literature, not as narratives but as sporadic references. Agriculture not only involved crop production involving a number of practices, but also domestication of animals. Thus agriculture and cattle rearing went hand in hand and prosperity in those days was a measure of high crop yield and large numbers of domesticated animals mostly, cattle.

In the Rigveda, the deities Dyava-Prthvi, are extolled for regaining control over the fertile lands from the Dasyus. Mantras praising Indra as the deity for granting copious rains are well-known. So also Surya is praised as the deity having bonds in the three lokas; his bond in water i.e., habitable world, explained by Sayanacharya, are tillage, rain and seed. His rays called Asva are powerful and he is known to "drink the waters in the oceans" to form clouds. Thus hydrology or science of water is intimately connected with the deity Surya.

The Atharvaveda, describes the life of the ancient agriculturists in India. It is regarded as the most honourable of human activities by all sections of people and practiced irrespective of varnas. Farmer was an authority in the knowledge and production of food and hence respected as "Annadata". Ploughing the land was considered a privilege, and it is well known that Janaka Maharaja of Videha, found the girl child during ploughing of the land for a yajna, and named her Sita (which means furrow made by the plough). Everyone had a piece of land, big or small, which was cultivated to sustain the family. The farm is compared to the divine cow fulfilling all the desires of the hard working farmer. Ancient Indian farmers evolved nature friendly farming systems and practices.

A number of classical texts related to agricultural science are available namely, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Patanjali's Mahabhasya, Krishi-Parashara, Varahmihira's Brhat Samhita, and Surapala's Vrikshayurveda are some of the manuscripts that contain valuable information about different aspects such as agricultural implements, selection of seeds, land preparation, pest control, storage, plant nutrients, grafting, soil selection, plant propagation, diseases and plant protection, mixed cropping, crop rotation, intercropping, shifting cultivation, terrace farming etc. India's traditional agriculture has proved to be sustainable by maintaining the country's fertility and biodiversity over centuries.

Agricultural Processes

Broadly the processes which are performed by a farmer include the following eight steps from crop selection to harvesting.

1. Crop selection
2. Land preparation
3. Seed selection
4. Seed sowing
5. Irrigation
6. Crop growth
7. Fertilizing
8. Harvesting

Along with the knowledge for performing the above processes, a few areas where traditional knowledge of farming is available includes prediction of rainfall, farming systems tillage, mixed cropping, crop rotation, crop protection, terrace farming, agricultural implements. An in depth study of these processes show how our ancient farmer has a holistic education in various sciences compared to the modern day scientist.

Prediction of Rainfall

The systematic study of meteorological science was made by our ancient astronomers and astrologers. Agriculture is totally dependent on rainfall. This fact was first realised by Indians. Hence they started gauging the sky for rainfall prediction. Parashra gave the techniques of rainfall prediction and agricultural practices for crop production. Garg invented the science of astrology. Arybhata measured the time period of different planets and distance from earth. Varahmihira (600 AD) studied weather prediction and measurement of rainfall, touching zenith in the meteorological science. The hypotheses given by ancient scientists are simple and costly apparatus were not used. Observations coupled with experience over centuries developed meteorology (Varshney, 2007).

The methods used by local and indigenous people for forecasting rainfall and other weather conditions on the basis of bio-indicator and the phenology of plants and behaviour of animals is coined as a new term – Presage biology. The production and application of local forecasts are deeply localized, derived from intimate interactions with a micro-environment whose rhythms are intertwined with the cycles of seasonal changes. Local indicators and local knowledge systems can not be replaced with scientific knowledge, because they are holistic and specific to local situations, providing farmers and others with the ability to make decisions and prepare for the coming agricultural year. Mechanisms for integrating both traditional and scientific weather forecast systems would reduce uncertainties and improve farm management, as well as provide a basis for integrating scientific forecasts into existing decision processes of farmers (Acharya, 2011). Bio-indicators as well as Almanacs (Panchang) have been used to predict the weather for a very long time and many times proved very effective and successful.