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=== उपनयः ॥ Upanaya : Statement of Reaafirmation  ===

=== उपनयः ॥ Upanaya : Statement of Reaafirmation  ===

Upanaya is the Statement of Minor premise (a minor summary), a Re-affirmation, made with the support of the Udaharana and is thus based on Upamana pramana.<blockquote>उदाहरणापेक्षः तथा इति उपसंहारः न तथा इति वा साध्यस्य उपनयः ॥३८॥ {उपनयलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.38)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Upanaya (reaffirmation) is that which, depending on the Udaharana, reasserts the Sadhya (subject which is to be proved) as being "so" (i.e., as possessing the character which has been found in the Udaharana, to be concomitant with the Udaharana) or as being "not so" (i.e., as not possessing the character which has been found in the Udaharana, to be concomitant with the negation of the Udaharana). (Page No 69 of Reference <ref name=":6" />) <blockquote>साध्यासाधर्म्ययुक्ते उदाहरणे स्थाल्यादि द्रव्यमुत्यतिधर्मकत्वमुपसंह्रियते साध्यवैदर्म्ययुक्ते पुनरुदाहरणे आत्मादि द्रव्यमनुत्पत्तिधर्मकं नित्यं दृष्टं न च तथा शब्द इति अनुत्पत्तिधर्मकत्वस्योपसंहारप्रतिषेधेन उत्पत्तिधर्मकत्वमुपसंहियते । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.38) (PDF Page 91 of Reference<ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>

Upanaya is the Statement of Minor premise (a minor summary), a Re-affirmation, made with the support of the Udaharana and is thus based on Upamana pramana.<blockquote>उदाहरणापेक्षः तथा इति उपसंहारः न तथा इति वा साध्यस्य उपनयः ॥३८॥ {उपनयलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.38)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Upanaya (reaffirmation) is that which, depending on the Udaharana, reasserts the Sadhya (subject which is to be proved) as being "so" (i.e., as possessing the character which has been found in the Udaharana, to be concomitant with the Sadhya) or as being "not so" (i.e., as not possessing the character which has been found in the Udaharana, is to be opposite and with the negation of Udaharana). (Page No 69 of Reference <ref name=":6" />) <blockquote>साध्यासाधर्म्ययुक्ते उदाहरणे स्थाल्यादि द्रव्यमुत्यतिधर्मकत्वमुपसंह्रियते साध्यवैदर्म्ययुक्ते पुनरुदाहरणे आत्मादि द्रव्यमनुत्पत्तिधर्मकं नित्यं दृष्टं न च तथा शब्द इति अनुत्पत्तिधर्मकत्वस्योपसंहारप्रतिषेधेन उत्पत्तिधर्मकत्वमुपसंहियते । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.38) (PDF Page 91 of Reference<ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>

# When the Udaharana cited is the homogenous one, which is similar to the subject, - e.g. when the Dish (plate) is cited as the example to show, that it is a product and is non-eternal, we have the reaffirmation stated in the form, 'Sound is so' i.e., 'Sound is a product'; where the characteristic of being a product is affirmed of the subject Sound.

# When the Udaharana cited is the homogenous one, which is similar to the subject, - e.g. when the Dish (plate) is cited as the example to show, that it is a product and is non-eternal, we have the reaffirmation stated in the form, 'Sound is so' i.e., 'Sound is a product'; where the characteristic of being a product is affirmed of the subject Sound.

# When the Udaharana cited is the heterogeneous one, which is dissimilar to the Subject - e.g. when the Atma is cited as an example of the substance, which not being a product, is eternal, we have the reaffirmation stated in the form, 'Sound is not so' therefore, 'Sound is a product'; where the character of being a product is reasserted of the subject Sound, through the denial of the affirmation of the character of not being produced. Thus there are two kinds of reafffirmation based on the two kinds of Udaharana. (Page No 69 Reference <ref name=":6" />).

# When the Udaharana cited is the heterogeneous one, which is opposite to the Subject - e.g. when the Atma is cited as an example of a substance, which not being a product, is eternal, we have the reaffirmation stated in the form, 'Sound is not so' therefore, 'Sound is a product'; where the character of being a product is reasserted of the subject Sound, through the denial of the affirmation of the character of not being produced. Thus there are two kinds of reafffirmation based on the two kinds of Udaharana. (Page No 69 Reference <ref name=":6" />).

=== निगमनम् ॥ Nigamana : Statement of Conclusion ===

=== निगमनम् ॥ Nigamana : Statement of Conclusion ===

Nigamana is the Statement of the Final Conclusion. It is the indication of the capability of the aforesaid statements to arrive at a single conclusion pertaining to the same object or purpose.<blockquote>हेत्वपदेशात्प्रतिज्ञायाः पुनर्वचनं निगमनम्॥३९॥{निगमनलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.39)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Nigamana is the Statement of the Final Conclusion which is the restatement of the Pratijna on the basis of Hetu.  <blockquote>साधर्म्योक्ते वा वैधर्म्योक्ते वा यथोदाहरणमुपसंह्रियते तस्मादुत्पत्तिधर्मकत्वादनित्यः शब्द इति निगमनम् । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.39) (PDF Page 92 of Reference<ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>The Hetu having been stated either per similarity or per dissimilarity, we have a recapitulation (of the entire reasoning) in accordance with the Hetu; and this recapitulation constitutes the final conclusion; which is in the form "Therefore, having the character of product, Sound is non-eternal." This has been called "Nigamana (Final Conclusion)" because it serves to connect or string together (निगमयन्ते अनेन) the Pratijna (Proposition), Hetu (Reasoning), Udaharana (Example), and the Upanaya (Reaffirmation); the word nigamyante (निगमयन्ते) being synonymous with the samarthyante (समर्थन्यते) and sambadhyante (संबध्यन्ते).

Nigamana is the Statement of the Final Conclusion. It is the indication of the capability of the aforesaid statements to arrive at a single conclusion pertaining to the same object or purpose.<blockquote>हेत्वपदेशात्प्रतिज्ञायाः पुनर्वचनं निगमनम्॥३९॥{निगमनलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.39)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Nigamana is the Statement of the Final Conclusion which is the restatement of the Pratijna on the basis of Hetu.  <blockquote>साधर्म्योक्ते वैधर्म्योक्ते वा यथोदाहरणमुपसंह्रियते तस्मादुत्पत्तिधर्मकत्वादनित्यः शब्द इति निगमनम् ।... (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.39) (PDF Page 92 of Reference<ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>The Hetu having been stated either per similarity or per dissimilarity, we have a recapitulation (of the entire reasoning) in accordance with the Hetu; and this recapitulation constitutes the final conclusion; which is in the form "Therefore, having the character of product, Sound is non-eternal." This has been called "Nigamana (Final Conclusion)" because it serves to connect or string together (निगमयन्ते अनेन) the Pratijna (Proposition), Hetu (Reasoning), Udaharana (Instance), and the Upanaya (Reaffirmation); the word nigamyante (निगमयन्ते) being synonymous with the samarthyante (समर्थन्यते) and sambadhyante (संबध्यन्ते).

When the Hetu has been stated per similarity, the Pratijna is in the form of the statement "Sound is non-eternal". Hetu here is stated as "because it has the characteristic of being a product"; the example is in the form "things like the dish or plate, which have the characteristic of being a product, are all non-eternal". And the Reaffirmation is stated as "Sound also has the same characteristic of being a product; the Final Conclusion is thus "therefore, having the characteristic of being a product Sound is non-eternal."

When the Hetu has been stated per similarity, the Pratijna is in the form of the statement "Sound is non-eternal". Hetu here is stated as "because it has the characteristic of being a product"; the example is in the form "things like the dish or plate, which have the characteristic of being a product, are all non-eternal". And the Reaffirmation is stated as "Sound also has the same characteristic of being a product; the Final Conclusion is thus "therefore, having the characteristic of being a product Sound is non-eternal."

== Prayojana of Avayavas ==

== Prayojana of Avayavas ==

Each of the five avayavas have a definite role in establishing the process of reasoning.  

Each of the five avayavas have a definite role in establishing the process of reasoning.  

* Pratijna serves the purpose of mentioning the relation between the characteristic to be proved and the Subject

* Pratijna serves the purpose of mentioning the relation between the characteristic to be proved and the subject

* Hetu serves the purpose of stating the fact of a certain characteristic, which is either similar or dissimilar to what is stated in the Udaharana, proving what is to be proved

* Hetu serves the purpose of stating the fact of a certain character, which is either similar or dissimilar to what is stated in the Udaharana, proving what is to be proved

* Udaharana serves the purpose of indicating the presence of a relation of '''proof and proved'' ', of a common characteristic manifested in two different things

* Udaharana serves the purpose of indicating the presence of a relation of '''proof and proved'' ', of a common character manifested in two different things namely the subject and Udaharana

* Upanaya serves the purpose of indicating the coexistence (in the Subject) of the characteristic put forward both in the Subject and the Udaharana

* Upanaya serves the purpose of indicating the coexistence (साधर्मम्यम्) or non-existence (वैधर्मम्यम्) (in the Subject) of the character put forward both in the Subject and the Udaharana

* Nigamana serves the purpose of showing that it is not possible to deny, in regard to the particular characteristic, the relation of '''proof and proved'' ' which has been found, in the Udaharana, to subsist between the two things namely Subject and Udaharana

* Nigamana serves the purpose of showing that it is not possible to deny, in regard to the particular characteristic, the relation of '''proof and proved'' ' which has been found, in the Udaharana, to subsist between the two things namely Subject and Udaharana

== Pramanas and Avayavas ==

== Pramanas and Avayavas ==

In every inferential statement, which consists of the five factors, several distinct pramanas commingle and cooperate towards the accomplishment of the statement as in the following cases -

In every inferential statement, which consists of the five factors, several distinct pramanas co-mingle and cooperate towards the accomplishment of the statement as in the following cases -

a) In the inference about Shabda, the Pratijna (Sound is non-eternal) comes under Shabda Pramana, verbal cognition and verbal assertion, unless it is heard directly from a Rshi and stands the need of corroboration by Pratyaksha and Anumana pramanas.

a) In the inference about Shabda, the Pratijna (Sound is non-eternal) comes under Shabda Pramana, verbal cognition and verbal assertion, unless it is heard directly from a Rshi and stands the need of corroboration by Pratyaksha and Anumana pramanas.

b) In the statement of Hetu, we have an Anumana pramana being deduced, from the cognition of similarity given by the instances or examples. This is clearly explained in the Bhashya dealing with the Statement of Instance.

b) In the statement of Hetu, we have an Anumana pramana being deduced, from the cognition of similarity given by the instances or examples. This is clearly explained in the Bhashya dealing with the Statement of Instance.

c) The statements of Udaharana represents the Pratyaksha thereby understanding the "unseen" (unknown or uncertain conclusion) from the "seen" (from the perception of the example or illustration).

c) The statements of Udaharana represents the Pratyaksha thereby understanding the "unperceived" (unknown or uncertain conclusion) from the "perceived" (from the perception of the example or illustration).

d) Reaffirmation is in the form of Upamana or Analogy as it is expressed in the form of (comparision) statements like "as that so this" or "this is not as that is"; when there is denial of the analogous character; in which case the reaffirmation is in the form of denial of the contrary character.

d) Reaffirmation is in the form of Upamana or Analogy as it is expressed in the form of (comparison) statements like "as that so this" or "this is not as that is"; when there is denial of the analogous character; in which case the reaffirmation is in the form of denial of the contrary character.

e) The final conclusion serves to show how all the factors combined are capable of bringing about the cognition of a single object.  

e) The final conclusion serves to show how all the factors combined are capable of bringing about the cognition of a single subject (Sadhya, what is to be proved).  

== सङ्ग्रह ॥ Summary ==

== सङ्ग्रह ॥ Summary ==