Vaidika Kala Mapana (वैदिककालमापनम्) - Revision history

AnuragV at 15:23, 28 December 2023

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← Older revision		Revision as of 15:23, 28 December 2023
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 Thus, a year sometimes contained 12 lunar months and sometimes 13 lunar months. By the time of the Vedanga jyotisha, insertion of an intercalary month after every 30 lunar months was prescribed (Yajusha jyotisha 37). Then, at a later stage the correspondence between the lunar and  solar year was established by evolving a cycle of five solar years with 62 lunar months. And this cycle was called a yuga.<ref name=":2" /> According to the Vedanga Jyotisha, an ordinary yuga consisted of 1,830 days. And an intercalary month was added at half the yuga and another at the end of the yuga.<ref name=":5">Subhash Kak (2000), [http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/ast.pdf Astonomy and its Role in Vedic Culture], Chapter 23 in Science and Civilization in India, Vol.1, The Dawn of Indian Civilization, Part 1, edited by G. P. Pande, Delhi: ICPR/Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 507-524.</ref>
-== Yuga in Vedic Literature<ref name=":1" /> ==
+== Yuga in Vedic Literature ==
-Periods bigger than a year are also met with in the vedic literature. They were called yuga. One such yuga consisted of 5 solar years. The five constituent years of this yuga were called Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Anuvatsara and Idvatsara.
+Periods bigger than a year are also met with in the vedic literature. They were called yuga. One such yuga consisted of 5 solar years. The five constituent years of this yuga were called Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Anuvatsara and Idvatsara.<ref name=":1" />
-Two of these names viz. Samvatsara and Parivatsara find mention in the Rgveda (7. 103. 7–8),<blockquote>ब्राह्मणासो अतिरात्रे न सोमे सरो न पूर्णमभितो वदन्तः । संवत्सरस्य तदहः परि ष्ठ यन्मण्डूकाः प्रावृषीणं बभूव ॥७॥</blockquote><blockquote>ब्राह्मणासः सोमिनो वाचमक्रत ब्रह्म कृण्वन्तः परिवत्सरीणम् । अध्वर्यवो घर्मिणः सिष्विदाना आविर्भवन्ति गुह्या न के चित् ॥८॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Sukta 103].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''brāhmaṇāsō atirātrē na sōmē sarō na pūrṇamabhitō vadantaḥ । saṁvatsarasya tadahaḥ pari ṣṭha yanmaṇḍūkāḥ prāvr̥ṣīṇaṁ babhūva ॥7॥''</blockquote><blockquote>''brāhmaṇāsaḥ sōminō vācamakrata brahma kr̥ṇvantaḥ parivatsarīṇam । adhvaryavō gharmiṇaḥ siṣvidānā āvirbhavanti guhyā na kē cit ॥8॥''</blockquote>While the Taittiriya samhita, the Vajasaneyi samhita and the Taittiriya brahmana (3. 4. 11 and 3. 10. 4) mention all the five names, with some alteration.
+Two of these names viz. Samvatsara and Parivatsara find mention in the Rgveda (7. 103. 7–8),<blockquote>ब्राह्मणासो अतिरात्रे न सोमे सरो न पूर्णमभितो वदन्तः । संवत्सरस्य तदहः परि ष्ठ यन्मण्डूकाः प्रावृषीणं बभूव ॥७॥</blockquote><blockquote>ब्राह्मणासः सोमिनो वाचमक्रत ब्रह्म कृण्वन्तः परिवत्सरीणम् । अध्वर्यवो घर्मिणः सिष्विदाना आविर्भवन्ति गुह्या न के चित् ॥८॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Sukta 103].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''brāhmaṇāsō atirātrē na sōmē sarō na pūrṇamabhitō vadantaḥ । saṁvatsarasya tadahaḥ pari ṣṭha yanmaṇḍūkāḥ prāvr̥ṣīṇaṁ babhūva ॥7॥''</blockquote><blockquote>''brāhmaṇāsaḥ sōminō vācamakrata brahma kr̥ṇvantaḥ parivatsarīṇam । adhvaryavō gharmiṇaḥ siṣvidānā āvirbhavanti guhyā na kē cit ॥8॥''</blockquote>While the Taittiriya samhita, the Vajasaneyi samhita and the Taittiriya brahmana (3. 4. 11 and 3. 10. 4) mention all the five names, with some alteration.<ref name=":1" />
 * The Taittiriya samhita (5. 5. 7. 3–4)<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref> calls them Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Iduvatsara and Vatsara.
 * The Vajasaneyi samhita (27. 45 and 30. 15) calls them Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Idvatsara and Vatsara.
 <blockquote>संवत्सरो ऽसि परिवत्सरोऽसीदावत्सरो ऽसीद्वत्सरो ऽसि वत्सरो ऽसि ।27. 45|<ref>Shukla Yajurveda, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AD Adhyaya 27].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>यमाय यमसूम् अथर्वभ्यो ऽवतोकाꣳ संवत्सराय पर्यायिणीं परिवत्सरायाविजाताम् इदावत्सरायातीत्वरीम् इद्वत्सरायातिष्कद्वरीं वत्सराय विजर्जराꣳ संवत्सराय पलिक्नीम् ऋभुभ्यो ऽजिनसंधꣳ साध्येभ्यश् चर्मम्नम् ॥30. 15||<ref>Shukla Yajurveda, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%A6 Adhyaya 30].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''saṁvatsarō 'si parivatsarō'sīdāvatsarō 'sīdvatsarō 'si vatsarō 'si ।27. 45|''</blockquote><blockquote>''yamāya yamasūm atharvabhyō 'vatōkāꣳ saṁvatsarāya paryāyiṇīṁ parivatsarāyāvijātām idāvatsarāyātītvarīm idvatsarāyātiṣkadvarīṁ vatsarāya vijarjarāꣳ saṁvatsarāya paliknīm r̥bhubhyō 'jinasaṁdhaꣳ sādhyēbhyaś carmamnam ॥30. 15||''</blockquote>
 * The Taittiriya brahmana (3. 4. 11 and 3. 10. 4) calls them Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Idvatsara and Vatsara.
-<blockquote>यम्यै यमसूम् । अथर्वभ्योऽवतोकाम् । संवत्सराय पर्यारिणीम् । परिवत्सरायाविजाताम् । इदावत्सरायापस्कद्वरीम् । इद्वत्सरायातीत्वरीम् । वत्सराय विजर्जराम् । सर्वंत्सराय पलिक्नीम् । वनाय वनपम् । अन्यतोऽरण्याय दावपम् १<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>संवत्सरोऽसि परिवत्सरोऽसि । इदावत्सरोऽसीदुवत्सरोऽसि । इद्वत्सरोऽसि वत्सरोऽसि ।<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>''yamyai yamasūm । atharvabhyō'vatōkām । saṁvatsarāya paryāriṇīm । parivatsarāyāvijātām । idāvatsarāyāpaskadvarīm । idvatsarāyātītvarīm । vatsarāya vijarjarām । sarvaṁtsarāya paliknīm । vanāya vanapam । anyatō'raṇyāya dāvapam 1''</blockquote><blockquote>''saṁvatsarō'si parivatsarō'si । idāvatsarō'sīduvatsarō'si । idvatsarō'si vatsarō'si ।''</blockquote>The names Krta, Treta, Dvapara and Kali which are used in later astronomy as the names of longer yugas are also used in the vedic literature. However they indicated different grades; each inferior to the preceding. But Dvapara, as a unit of time, is found to be used in the Gopatha-brahmana (1. 1. 28). <blockquote>असमीक्ष्यप्रवल्हितानि श्रूयन्ते द्वापरादाव् ऋषीणाम् एकदेशो दोषपतिर् इह चिन्ताम् आपेदे त्रिभिः सोमः पातव्यः समाप्तम् इव भवति...<ref>Gopatha brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''asamīkṣyapravalhitāni śrūyantē dvāparādāv r̥ṣīṇām ēkadēśō dōṣapatir iha cintām āpēdē tribhiḥ sōmaḥ pātavyaḥ samāptam iva bhavati...''</blockquote>
+<blockquote>यम्यै यमसूम् । अथर्वभ्योऽवतोकाम् । संवत्सराय पर्यारिणीम् । परिवत्सरायाविजाताम् । इदावत्सरायापस्कद्वरीम् । इद्वत्सरायातीत्वरीम् । वत्सराय विजर्जराम् । सर्वंत्सराय पलिक्नीम् । वनाय वनपम् । अन्यतोऽरण्याय दावपम् १<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>संवत्सरोऽसि परिवत्सरोऽसि । इदावत्सरोऽसीदुवत्सरोऽसि । इद्वत्सरोऽसि वत्सरोऽसि ।<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>''yamyai yamasūm । atharvabhyō'vatōkām । saṁvatsarāya paryāriṇīm । parivatsarāyāvijātām । idāvatsarāyāpaskadvarīm । idvatsarāyātītvarīm । vatsarāya vijarjarām । sarvaṁtsarāya paliknīm । vanāya vanapam । anyatō'raṇyāya dāvapam 1''</blockquote><blockquote>''saṁvatsarō'si parivatsarō'si । idāvatsarō'sīduvatsarō'si । idvatsarō'si vatsarō'si ।''</blockquote>There are allusions to yugas, meant as an age also, in the Vedas. The names Krta, Treta, Dvapara and Kali which are used in later astronomy as the names of longer yugas find mention in the vedic literature as well.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":1" />
 == Reconciliations in the Vedanga Jyotisha ==

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 == Week in Vedic Literature ==
-In vedic literature, six days were taken to form a week that was called a Shadaha. 5 shadahas made a month and 12 months, a year. As to the names of the six days of a shadaha, there is no reference in the vedic literature. However, this six-day week was later replaced by the present seven day week (called saptaha) which had attained popularity and was in general use at the time of composition of the Atharva Jyotisha - a work on Jyotisha belonging to the later vedic period.<ref name=":1" />
+In vedic literature, six days were taken to form a week that was called a Shadaha. 5 shadahas made a month and 12 months, a year. As to the names of the six days of a shadaha, there is no reference in the vedic literature. However, this six-day week was later replaced by the present seven day week (called saptaha) which had attained popularity and was in general use at the time of composition of the Atharva Jyotisha - a work on Jyotisha belonging to the later vedic period.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5" />
 == Months in Vedic Literature ==

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 == Reconciliations in the Vedanga Jyotisha ==
 The Vedic literature does have scattered references to many terms that help in understanding the division of time during the vedic times. However, it is the Vedanga jyotisha, the earliest available work dedicated to the field of Astronomy that mentions in detail about the divisions of time that finally evolved from the vedic period. Some facts of note from the Vedanga jyotisha are as follows:
-# The five-year yuga of the Vedanga Jyotisha contained 61 civil, 62 lunar, and 67 sidereal months wherein the year consisted of 366 civil days which were reckoned from sunrise to sunrise.
+#According to the Vedanga Jyotisha, each yuga was taken to begin with the asterism Shravishtha and the synodic month of Magha, the solar month Tapas and the bright fortnight (parvan), and the northward course of the sun and the moon.<ref name=":5" />
-# After every thirty lunar months one intercalary month was inserted to bring about concordance between solar and lunar years.
+# The five-year yuga of the Vedanga Jyotisha contained 61 civil, 62 lunar, and 67 sidereal months wherein the year consisted of 366 civil days which were reckoned from sunrise to sunrise or 372 tithis.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5" />
 # Similarly, to equate the number of tithis and civil days in the yuga of five solar years, the thirty full moon tithis which ended between sunrise and midday were omitted.
 # There were six seasons of equal duration in every year, each new season beginning after every 61 days.<ref name=":1" />

@@ Line 85: / Line 85: @@
 The Taittiriya samhita (5. 6. 7<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Prapathaka 6]. </ref>) refers to 12 as well as 13 months of a year and calls the thirteenth (intercalary) month by the names Samsarpa and Amhaspati (1. 4. 14).<blockquote>1 मधुश् च माधवश् च शुक्रश् च शुचिश् च नभश् च नभस्यश् चेषश् चोर्जश् च सहश् च सहस्यश् च तपश् च तपस्यश् च । उपयामगृहीतो ऽसि सꣳसर्पो ऽसि । अꣳहस्पत्याय त्वा ॥<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''1 madhuś ca mādhavaś ca śukraś ca śuciś ca nabhaś ca nabhasyaś cēṣaś cōrjaś ca sahaś ca sahasyaś ca tapaś ca tapasyaś ca । upayāmagr̥hītō 'si saꣳsarpō 'si । aꣳhaspatyāya tvā ॥''</blockquote>While the Vajasaneyi samhita (7. 30; 22. 31) calls the intercalary month on one occasion by the name Amhasaspati and on another by the name malimlucha (22. 30). <blockquote>उपयामगृहीतो स्य् अꣳहसस्पतये त्वा ॥7. 30||<ref>Shukla Yajurveda, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Adhyaya 7].</ref> ''upayāmagr̥hītō sy aꣳhasaspatayē tvā ॥7. 30||''</blockquote><blockquote>तपस्याय स्वाहाꣳहसस्पतये स्वाहा ॥22. 31||<ref name=":4">Shukla Yajurveda, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 22].</ref> ''tapasyāya svāhāꣳhasaspatayē svāhā ॥22. 31||''</blockquote><blockquote>मलिम्लुचाय स्वाहा ||22. 30||<ref name=":4" /> ''malimlucāya svāhā ||22. 30||''</blockquote>While, according to later works (Tantrasamgraha), Amhaspati referred to the synodic month with two samkrantis, the synodic month without any Samkranti, occurring before it, is called Samsarpa and the synodic month without any Samkranti occurring after it is called Adhimasa (intercalary month).<ref name=":1" />
-Thus, a year sometimes contained 12 lunar months and sometimes 13 lunar months. By the time of the Vedanga jyotisha, insertion of an intercalary month after every 30 lunar months was prescribed (Yajusha jyotisha 37). Then, at a later stage the correspondence between the lunar and  solar year was established by evolving a cycle of five solar years with 62 lunar months. And this cycle was called a yuga.<ref name=":2" /> According to the Vedanga Jyotisha, an ordinary yuga consisted of 1,830 days. And an intercalary month was added at half the yuga and another at the end of the yuga.<ref>Subhash Kak (2000), [http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/ast.pdf Astonomy and its Role in Vedic Culture], Chapter 23 in Science and Civilization in India, Vol.1, The Dawn of Indian Civilization, Part 1, edited by G. P. Pande, Delhi: ICPR/Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 507-524.</ref>
+Thus, a year sometimes contained 12 lunar months and sometimes 13 lunar months. By the time of the Vedanga jyotisha, insertion of an intercalary month after every 30 lunar months was prescribed (Yajusha jyotisha 37). Then, at a later stage the correspondence between the lunar and  solar year was established by evolving a cycle of five solar years with 62 lunar months. And this cycle was called a yuga.<ref name=":2" /> According to the Vedanga Jyotisha, an ordinary yuga consisted of 1,830 days. And an intercalary month was added at half the yuga and another at the end of the yuga.<ref name=":5">Subhash Kak (2000), [http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/ast.pdf Astonomy and its Role in Vedic Culture], Chapter 23 in Science and Civilization in India, Vol.1, The Dawn of Indian Civilization, Part 1, edited by G. P. Pande, Delhi: ICPR/Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 507-524.</ref>
 == Yuga in Vedic Literature<ref name=":1" /> ==
@@ Line 102: / Line 102: @@
 # After every thirty lunar months one intercalary month was inserted to bring about concordance between solar and lunar years.
 # Similarly, to equate the number of tithis and civil days in the yuga of five solar years, the thirty full moon tithis which ended between sunrise and midday were omitted.
-# There were six seasons of equal duration in every year, each new season beginning after every 61 days.
+# There were six seasons of equal duration in every year, each new season beginning after every 61 days.<ref name=":1" />
 # Besides tithis and nakshatras, the yoga called Vyatipata was also in use.
 It is also to be noted that the five-year yuga was taken to commence at the winter solstice occurring at the beginning of the first tithi of the Shukla paksha of the month Magha. Since the Sun and Moon were supposed to occupy the same position at the beginning of each subsequent yuga and all happenings in one yuga were supposed to be repeated in the subsequent yugas in the same way, the calendar constructed on the basis of the Vedanga Jyotisha was meant to serve for a long time. And this situation of the Sun and Moon at the beginning of the yuga of five years mentioned in this work, according to T. S. Kuppanna Sastry, existed about 1150 bc or about 1370 bc.<ref name=":1" />

@@ Line 29: / Line 29: @@
 == Months in Vedic Literature ==
-In vedic astronomy, months were lunar or synodic and were measured from full moon to full moon and also from new moon to new moon<ref name=":2" /> as mentioned in the Taittiriya samhita (7.5.6.1)<ref name=":1" /><ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref> Originally, these months were named as Chaitra etc. based on the nakshatras occupied by the Moon at the time of full moon. And these names do not occur in the early samhitas and brahmanas. They are known to occur in Taittiriya samhita, Shankhayana/Kaushitaki, and Tandya brahmanas, Ashvalayana grhyasutra, Archa and Yajusha jyotisha. Some of the occurrences are as follows:<ref name=":1" />
+In vedic astronomy, months were lunar or synodic and were measured from full moon to full moon and also from new moon to new moon<ref name=":2" /> as mentioned in the Taittiriya samhita (7.5.6.1)<ref name=":1" /><ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref> Originally, these months were named as Chaitra etc. based on the [[Nakshatras (नक्षत्राणि)|nakshatras]] occupied by the Moon at the time of full moon. And these names do not occur in the early samhitas and brahmanas. They are known to occur in Taittiriya samhita, Shankhayana/Kaushitaki, and Tandya brahmanas, Ashvalayana grhyasutra, Archa and Yajusha jyotisha. Some of the occurrences are as follows:<ref name=":1" />
 * The terms Phalguni purnamasi, Chitra purnamasi, etc. are found in the Taittiriya samhita (7. 4. 8).<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref>
 * The term Magha is mentioned in Shankhayana/Kaushitaki brahmana (19. 3)

@@ Line 11: / Line 11: @@
 Vedic astronomy is the astronomy of the vedic period, i.e., the astronomy found in the vedic samhitas, brahmanas and allied literature.<ref name=":1" /> And that is elaborated in this article below.
-== Day in Vedic Astronomy ==
+== Day in Vedic Literature ==
 The day, in vedic literature was called Vasara (वासरः) or ahan (अहन्). And was reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. The variability of its length was known. For, the Rgveda invoking Somaraja says, <blockquote>''“O Somaraja, prolong thou our lives just as the Sun increases the length of the days.”<ref name=":1" />''</blockquote><blockquote>सोम राजन्प्र ण आयूंषि तारीरहानीव सूर्यो वासराणि ॥७॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 8, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AE.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AE Sukta 48].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''soma rājanpra ṇa āyūṁṣi tārīrahānīva sūryo vāsarāṇi ॥7॥''</blockquote>On the analogy of a civil day, a lunar day was also sometimes reckoned from one moonrise to the next and the name tithi was given to it.<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>तदाहुर्यद्दर्शपूर्णमासयोरुपवसति न ह वा अव्रतस्य देवा हविरश्नन्ति तस्मादुपवसत्युत मे देवा हविरश्नीयुरिति। पूर्वां पौर्णमासीमुपवसेदिति पैङ्ग्यमुत्तरामिति कौषीतकं या पूर्वा पौर्णमासी साऽनुमतिर्योत्तरा सा राका। या पूर्वाऽमावास्या सा सिनीवाली योत्तरा सा कुहूः। यां पर्यस्तमियादभ्युदियादिति सा तिथिः.....॥7.11॥ (Aitareya brahmana 32.10)<ref>Aitareya brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A5%AD_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE) Panchika 7].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''tadāhuryaddarśapūrṇamāsayorupavasati na ha vā avratasya devā haviraśnanti tasmādupavasatyuta me devā haviraśnīyuriti। pūrvāṁ paurṇamāsīmupavasediti paiṅgyamuttarāmiti kauṣītakaṁ yā pūrvā paurṇamāsī sā'numatiryottarā sā rākā। yā pūrvā'māvāsyā sā sinīvālī yottarā sā kuhūḥ। yāṁ paryastamiyādabhyudiyāditi sā tithiḥ.....॥7.11॥''</blockquote>However, the term tithi in the sense in which it is used now occurs in the Vedanga Jyotisha. It does not occur in the vedic samhitas and brahmanas, but there are reasons to believe that tithis were used even in those times.<ref name=":1" />
@@ Line 26: / Line 26: @@
 However, by the time of the Kautiliya Arthashastra, the day and night came to be divided into eight parts each.<blockquote>नालिकाभिरहरष्टधा रात्रिं च विभजेत् । छाया-प्रमाणेन वा ।। ०१.१९.०६ ।।<ref>Arthashastra, Adhikarana 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 19].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''nālikābhiraharaṣṭadhā rātriṁ ca vibhajet । chāyā-pramāṇena vā ।। 01.19.06 ।।''</blockquote>
-== Week in Vedic Astronomy ==
+== Week in Vedic Literature ==
 In vedic literature, six days were taken to form a week that was called a Shadaha. 5 shadahas made a month and 12 months, a year. As to the names of the six days of a shadaha, there is no reference in the vedic literature. However, this six-day week was later replaced by the present seven day week (called saptaha) which had attained popularity and was in general use at the time of composition of the Atharva Jyotisha - a work on Jyotisha belonging to the later vedic period.<ref name=":1" />
-== Months, Seasons and Year ==
+== Months in Vedic Literature ==
-In vedic astronomy, months were lunar or synodic and were measured from full moon to full moon and also from new moon to new moon<ref name=":2" /> as mentioned in the Taittiriya samhita (7.5.6.1)<ref name=":1" /><ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref> Originally, these months were named as Caitra etc. based on the nakshatras occupied by the Moon at the time of full moon. And these names do not occur in the early samhitas and brahmanas. Some of their occurrences are as follows:
+In vedic astronomy, months were lunar or synodic and were measured from full moon to full moon and also from new moon to new moon<ref name=":2" /> as mentioned in the Taittiriya samhita (7.5.6.1)<ref name=":1" /><ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref> Originally, these months were named as Chaitra etc. based on the nakshatras occupied by the Moon at the time of full moon. And these names do not occur in the early samhitas and brahmanas. They are known to occur in Taittiriya samhita, Shankhayana/Kaushitaki, and Tandya brahmanas, Ashvalayana grhyasutra, Archa and Yajusha jyotisha. Some of the occurrences are as follows:
-# phalgunī-pūrnamāsī, citrā-pūrnamāsī, etc. are found to occur in the Taittirīyasaṃhitā (7. 4. 8).<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref>
+* The terms Phalguni purnamasi, Chitra purnamasi, etc. are found in the Taittiriya samhita (7. 4. 8).<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref>
-# They occur in the Saṅkhāyana and Tāṇḍya-brāhmaṇas, the Vedāṅga-jyautiṣa, and the Kalpa-sūtras.5
+* The term Magha is mentioned in Shankhayana/Kaushitaki brahmana (19. 3)
-# 5Māgha is mentioned in Sāṅkhāyana-brāhmaṇa (= Kauṣītaki-brāhmaṇa) 19. 3;
+<blockquote>स वै माघस्य अमावास्यायाम् उपवसत्य् उदन्न् आवर्त्स्यन् ।<ref name=":3" />''sa vai māghasya amāvāsyāyām upavasaty udann āvartsyan ।''</blockquote>
-# Phālguna in Tāṇḍya-brāhmaṇa, 5. 9. 7–12;
+* The term Phalguna occurs in Tandya brahmana (5. 9. 7–12)
-# and Srāvana, Māgha and Pauṣa in Ārca-jyautiṣa, 5, 6, 32, and 34 and Yājuṣa-jyautiṣa 5, 6, and 7;
+* The terms Margashirsha and Shravana occurs in the Ashvalayana grhyasutra 2. 3. 1 and 3. 5. 2 respectively.
-# and Mārgaśīrṣa and Śrāvana in Āśvalāyanagṛhyasūtra, 2. 3. 1 and 3. 5. 2 respectively.<blockquote>मार्गशीर्ष्यां प्रत्यवरोहणं चतुर्दश्याम् १</blockquote><blockquote>ओषधीनां प्रादुर्भावे श्रवणेन श्रावणस्य २<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Ashvalayana Grhyasutra]</ref></blockquote>Twelve lunar months constituted a lunar year.
+<blockquote>मार्गशीर्ष्यां प्रत्यवरोहणं चतुर्दश्याम् १ | ''mārgaśīrṣyāṁ pratyavarohaṇaṁ caturdaśyām 1 |''</blockquote><blockquote>ओषधीनां प्रादुर्भावे श्रवणेन श्रावणस्य २ |<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Ashvalayana Grhyasutra]</ref> ''oṣadhīnāṁ prādurbhāve śravaṇena śrāvaṇasya 2 |''</blockquote>
-However, in due course they were linked with the solar months. Thus, the lunar month (reckoned from one new moon to the next) in which the Sun entered the sign Aries was called Chaitra or Madhu; that in which the Sun entered the sign Taurus was called Vaishakha or Madhava; and so on. And the lunar month in which the Sun did not enter a new sign was treated as an intercalary month.
+* While the terms Shravana, Magha and Pausha also occur in Archa jyotisha (5, 6, 32 and 34) and Yajusha jyotisha (5, 6, and 7)
-While the year, generally called by the terms sama, vatsara, and hayana in the vedic literature, was measured from one winter solstice to the next.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> In fact, Kaushitaki brahmana (19.3) gives an interesting account of how the year-long yajna commenced at one winter solstice and continued until the next. It says, “On the new moon of Magha, the Sun rests, about to turn northwards. The hotas also rest, about to begin with the introductory Atiratra. Thus, for the first time, the hotas obtain the Sun. On him, they lay hold with the Chaturvimsha rite; that is why the laying hold rite has that name. The Sun then goes north for six months, while the hotas follow him with six day rites in continuation. Having gone north for six months, the Sun stands still, about to turn southwards. The hotas also rest, about to begin with the Vishnuvanta (summer solstice) day. Thus, for the second time, they obtain the Sun. The Sun then goes south for six months and the hotas follow him with six day rites in reverse order. Having gone south for six months, the Sun stands still, being about to turn north and the hotas also rest, about to begin with the Mahavrata day. Thus, they obtain the Sun for the third time."<ref name=":1" /><ref>Kaushitaki brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 19].</ref>
+The twelve lunar months constituted a lunar year.
-In this context, it is worth observing that the Taittiriya brahmana (3. 9. 22) calls the year “the day of the deities” who are supposed to reside at the north pole.<blockquote>एकं वा एतद्देवानामहः  । यत्संवत्सरः  ।<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Prapathaka 9].</ref> ''ekaṁ vā etaddevānāmahaḥ । yatsaṁvatsaraḥ ।''</blockquote>This year of vedic astronomy seems to have been a seasonal or tropical one. Therefore, in the early stages, the names of the seasons were used as synonyms of a year.
+== Year in Vedic Literature ==
 but in due course it was used in the sense of a sidereal year.