View source for Ancient Indian Psychology (भारतीय मनोविज्ञानम्)

Manovijnana (Samskrit: मनोविज्ञानम्) pertains to the science of the mind or of mental states and processes, and of human and animal behaviour. Broadly these aspects are studied in the modern branch of Psychology and Psychiatry. Understanding the mind, thought, actions of the sense organs and consciousness have remained as elusive subjects and beyond the reach of common understanding. Understanding the various mental processes and managing mental health has remained a major challenge to modern scientists to this day. It is time to reflect on the various siddhantas and methods used by ancient seers who made unfathomable advancements in the study of consciousness and mental processes. 

The source of man's insights are twofold - exploring the wonders of the world outward and the states of the mind inward. In the Vedas, the boundless diversity of nature engages attention. In the Upanishads we return inwards to explore the depths of inner world. The interest of the seers has always been in understanding and in controlling the mental processes encountered in the inward journey. The Bharatiya way of philosophic analysis started with the reflection on the inner Self of man with the ultimate goal, of all mental training, being the attainment of Moksha. We find that the psychological and physiological disciplines developed in the Upanishads, the Yoga sutras, the Bhagavad Gita, and in the schools of Buddhism and Jainism. Practicing scholars were astonished alike at the psychosomatic views held by the great medical authorities of India, namely, Charaka and Sushruta. It has been one of the wonders in intellectual history that though there was no independent branch of study like Psychology in ancient India, the ancient thinkers had independently developed highly systematic views regarding mind and its operations, particularly with reference to mental health and well-being.<ref name=":0">Prof. B. Kuppuswamy (1993) ''Source book of Ancient Indian Psychology.'' New Delhi: Konark Publishers Pvt Ltd. </ref>

== Introduction ==
Ancient Indian thought is not only rich in describing the metaphysical but also in psychological aspects. While there was no special discipline to study Manovijnana, loosely corresponding to the modern subject of Psychology, we find numerous valuable insights about this topic in as early as the Vedic times. Each school of philosophy, medicine, aesthetics etc., developed its own theory of mind. 

A few outstanding examples of well known contributions of Indian seers in the field of psychology include the following.<ref name=":1">Prof. B. Kuppuswamy (1985) ''Elements of Ancient Indian Psychology.'' Delhi: Konark Publishers Pvt Ltd. </ref>

# The Gayatri Mantra in Rigveda and Yajurveda
# Shiva sankalpa sukta in Yajurveda
# Understanding the power of the Self in Kena Upanishad
# The four states of Consciousness in Mandukya Upanishad
# [[Panchakosha (पञ्चकोषाः)|Panchakoshas]] described in the Taittriya Upanishad

The Vedic thinkers were chiefly preoccupied with the aspects of consciousness, its relation to the body, sense organs, and mind to the states of consciousness, viz., waking, dreaming, sleep and above all the turiya or the fourth state. With the rise of theories of materialism (Charvaka, Lokayuta), Buddhism and Jainism, the focus shifted to attention, perception, inference and illusion. Memory, imagination, feelings and emotions, thoughts and a way to express them, their relation to the development of language were paid considerable contemplation. Apart from these dynamics of the mind, thoughts and behaviour, there was a great deal of concern regarding meditation, aesthetics, carnal pleasures and religion, all of which played a significant role in psychological processes of a human being.<ref name=":1" />

== Mind in Sanatana Dharma ==
Mind has been conceived to be the functional element of the Atma (Soul or Self) in the Vedas. In the Vedas, the Rig and Yajurvedas, prayers or stutis light up the inner world of a person with noble thoughts. It has been mentioned that thoughts determine facial appearance, and influence the expression; thoughts can be purified through mantras. Such purified thoughts influence the natural instincts, thus preventing mental imbalance and pain.<ref name=":4">Gautam, Shiv (1999) ''Mental health in ancient India and its relevance to modern psychiatry.'' Indian Journal of Psychiatry 41, 1, 5--18</ref>

==== Concepts of Mind in Rigveda ====
In Rigveda we find mantras depicting the concepts of the speed of mind, methods and prayers for mental happiness, and methods to increase medha (intelligence).<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>मनो॒ न योऽध्व॑नः स॒द्य एत्येक॑: स॒त्रा सूरो॒ वस्व॑ ईशे । (Rig. Veda. 1.71.9)</blockquote>In this mantra, we find that just like the mind, '''Surya''' alone travels on his celestial path with great speed.<ref>Pt. Sripada Damodara Satvalekar (See Page 179 of Subodh Bhashya for Explanation of [https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Rigveda_Subodh_Bhasya_Vol_I/#book/187 Rigveda. 1.71.9])</ref> The ancients were well aware of this particular quality of the mind. <blockquote>का त॒ उपे॑ति॒र्मन॑सो॒ वरा॑य॒ भुव॑दग्ने॒ शंत॑मा॒ का म॑नी॒षा । (Rig. Veda 1.76.1)</blockquote>In this mantra, the seer talks about finding ways to please the deity '''Agni''', - what are the ways to make your mind happy? Which prayer by us will give you sukh (happiness)?<ref>Pt. Sripada Damodara Satvalekar (See Page 188 of Subodh Bhashya for Explanation of [https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Rigveda_Subodh_Bhasya_Vol_I/#book/197 Rigveda. 1.76.1])</ref>

It has been stated that purification of the mind prevents diseases in human beings therefore one should have noble thoughts. The power of mind in healing has also been described in Rigveda.<blockquote>उषो॒ ये ते॒ प्र यामे॑षु यु॒ञ्जते॒ मनो॑ दा॒नाय॑ सू॒रय॑: । (Rig. Veda. 1.48.4)</blockquote>Rigveda mantras mention about the ways to increase concentration, developing habits such as getting up in the Ushakala or Brahmamuhurta for adhyayan (studies) and performing good activities such as dana (charity). Any person who controls his mind from wandering and engages in good activities will become mentally sharp. The prayer to the deity '''Usha''' thus increases the mental faculties and generates noble thoughts.<ref>Pt. Sripada Damodar Satvalekar (See Page 116 of Subodh Bhashya [https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Rigveda_Subodh_Bhasya_Vol_I/#book/125 for Rigveda Mantra 1.48.4])</ref>

That the personality traits in a human being are influenced by the Trigunas the sattva, rajas and tamo gunas has been described in the Rigveda.<ref name=":4" /> Rigvedic seers were also quick to identify that suffering due to mental illnesses (vyatha) could be avoided by prayers. The following mantra depicts the earnest request for protection from manasik vyatha (mental suffering).<blockquote>अ॒हं सो अ॑स्मि॒ यः पु॒रा सु॒ते वदा॑मि॒ कानि॑ चित् । तं मा॑ व्यन्त्या॒ध्यो॒ ३ वृको॒ न तृ॒ष्णजं॑ मृ॒गं वि॒त्तं मे॑ अ॒स्य रो॑दसी ॥७॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.105.7)</blockquote>Summary: However much a man becomes scholarly and wise, he is chased by mental suffering just like a thirsty deer is chased by a pack of wolves. Even after attaining wisdom a man's mind is far from being calm, thirst for worldly enjoyments and anger keep him unsettled. Even those who recite stotras, pray, perform sadhana and sing bhajans are not exempted from mental suffering completely. They are consumed by  manasik vyatha, just like how a starched cloth is eaten by mice. Just like how mice consume the starch applied to the threads of a cloth, similarly (the mice such as) kama, krodha etc thrive on worldly desires (starch of bhog iccha) applied on the mind thereby destroying the mental peace of a person. A man surrounded from all sides with many mental worries is just like a man stuck among many wives. O Dyavaprthvi, understand my suffering and protect me.<ref>Pt. Sripada Damodara Satvalekar (See Page 188 of Subodh Bhashya for Explanation of [https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Rigveda_Subodh_Bhasya_Vol_I/#book/273 Rigveda. 1.105.7 - 8])</ref>

The famous Gayatri Mantra in the Rigveda (3.62.10) which is also present in the Yajurveda, is the essence of the Vedas. The prayer is rendered as follows:<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>''"We meditate upon that adorable efflungence of the resplendent vivifier, Savitr (Sun); May he stimulate our intellects"''</blockquote>In this mantra, mans asks, not for happiness or riches, but for a keen intellect and for enlightenment. It embodies in the form of a prayer, the highest aspiration of a man to come into contact with the universal consciousness.

==== Concepts of Mind in Yajurveda ====
In Yajurveda mind has been conceptualized as the inner flame of knowledge. The famous Shiva Sankalpa of Yajurveda (34, 1-6) is a remarkable description of the mind. The mind is described as "that which goes our afar" in waking state and returns to rest in sleeping state. It is looked upon as being swift in motion, unhampered by the limitations of time and space. It is said to consist of intelligence, feeling and determination. The mind is described as "the light of lights" which illuminates all cognitions. It is the principle which is the basis of memory and anticipation (past, present and future). It holds all experiences and all memories together. It is that which leads and controls all the activities of man. It is the basis of all accomplishments in war as well as in peace time.<ref name=":1" />

Mind is the seat of Sankalpa, it is the essence of mind. Sankalpa - resolution, decision and Vikalpa - indecision and irresolution, doubt and hesitation are the two facets of the mind. Shiva sankalpa mantras present a prayer that mind should not only be of firm resolve but also of auspicious (Shiva) resolve, that is constructive and growth oriented.<ref name=":1" />

The mind of man was looked upon as having three aspects: 

* the sub-conscious
* the conscious 
* the super-conscious

The psychic experiences such as telepathy and clairvoyance were considered to be neither abnormal nor miraculous. They were considered to be the powers of the mind which could be developed with effort. They were classified as siddhis, which were attained with training the mind, nevertheless were to be refrained from use. Siddhis such as clairvoyance and telepathy were looked upon as obstacles in the development of one's personality. The 'abnormal' psychic phenomena like ecstasy, trance etc were considered as the working of the 'superconscious mind'. The Yoga system in particular and other systems of thought refer to these superconscious states of the mind and how they can be deliberately induced and the pitfalls to be avoided in the process.<ref name=":0" />

== The Mind and its Mysteries ==
The ancient seer had doubtless his share of joys and sorrows, passions and dejections, moods and urges in life. And he had the right sense to turn his attention to these, 'inner breezes' within his own heart. So it was the ''''heart'''<nowiki/>' (हृद्) that was involved in all these psychological experiences. In the role of poets who composed the suktas, they often spoke of

* 'the pangs of grief in the heart' (हृ॒त्सु शोकै॑... Rig. Veda. 10.103.12) 
* 'holding fear in the heart' (भियं॒ दधा॑ना॒ हृद॑येषु॒... Rig. Veda. 10.84.7)
* 'praises with all the heart' (हृदामतिं... Rig. Veda. 3.26.8)

It is verily the 'heart' that is touched on when the intoxicating Soma enters the system. The heart indeed is the fountain of all 'song'. It is surely not the mere physical heart that is alluded to by the poet, but the psychological faculty characterized by 'feeling'; but of course the physical heart is the one bodily organ readily affected by intense feelings. It is different from the [[Manas (मनः)|Manas]] (Mind), but its close relative.<ref name=":2">Rao, Ramachandra. S. K. (1962) Development of Psychological Thought in India. Mysore: Kavyalaya Publishers. </ref>

=== Distinction between Hrday (हृदयम्) and Manas (मनः) ===
The heart is identified as the source of all involuntary, irrational and normally uncontrolled psychological processes. Fear enters, not mind, but heart (Rigveda. 10.84.7) as expressed by the poet saying, इन्द्र हृ॒दि यत्ते॑ ज॒घ्नुषो॒ भीरग॑च्छत् । "O Indra, if there arises fear in your heart at the time of killing Vrtra...." (Rigveda. 1.32.14). It is also not the mind but the heart that experiences longing, grief or pleasure. We see in the [[Yama Yami Samvada (यम यमि सम्वादः)|Yama Yami Samvada]], the longing of Yami and accusations she throws (ब॒तो ब॑तासि यम॒ नैव ते॒ मनो॒ हृद॑यं चाविदाम ।) for the lack of affection towards her (Rigveda. 10.10). 

The Vedic seer has rightly recognized an intimate connection between the heart and the mind; indeed many references point to the mind being located in the heart. However, mind has an independent consideration also. It is ''par excellence'' an instrument of reason, it symbolizes the rational faculty of man. Its function is likened to the winnowing of barley through the seive; the function being selective reception and filtration of data. Mind can be truthful, unruffled, mature, firm and sharp. It is essentially intellectual and only indirectly connected with our emotional life. Mind is even invoked to exercise restraint over the tempestuous surgings of the heart. Lovelorn [[Pururava Urvashi Samvada (पुरुरवा-ऊर्वशी संवादः)|Pururava]] implores his beloved Urvashi to return home and he asks her to 'stay with mind'. Mind is said to 'investigate and consider' into deeds. While the heart represents rather the stirred-up state of the individual, mind symbolizes the reflective aspect of mental life. Maintenance of mind contributes to life; and death is associated with the dissolution of mind.<ref name=":2" /> 

One of the qualities of Mind is that it is volatile, turbulent, obstinate and restless, characterized by "chanchalatva", its control is as difficult as the control of wind.<blockquote>चञ्चलं हि मन: कृष्ण प्रमाथि बलवद्दृढम् | तस्याहं निग्रहं मन्ये वायोरिव सुदुष्करम् || 34|| (Bhag. Gita. 6.33)</blockquote>Not only was mind important in individual life, its contribution to social well-being was also recognized. The very last mantra of the Rigveda concludes with the celebrated prayer which emphasizes the psychological concord in social life:<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>स॒मा॒नी व॒ आकू॑तिः समा॒ना हृद॑यानि वः । स॒मा॒नम॑स्तु वो॒ मनो॒ यथा॑ व॒: सुस॒हास॑ति ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.191.4)</blockquote>Meaning: May our resolutions be uniform and our hearts united; May our minds be one, that we all live well together.<ref name=":2" />

=== Methods to Analyze Mind ===
Ancient thinkers adopted some methods to analyze and study the problems of the mind and behaviour. These methods were not recorded as such and are found explained in almost each discipline of philosophy. 

# Observation was found to be a very important method in the study of behaviour.
# Introspection
# Reasoning
# Analysis of Anubhava or Experience
# Analysis through questions and seeking answers

The great emphasis on dhyana, meditation, is to enable an individual to follow the path so that he can have his own experience and verify for himself. Experience and realization are the dominant features of all Indian systems of thought. The guru-shishya relationship is akin to the relationship between a psychoanalyst and his patient in some respects. This is why it can be looked upon as a form of the clinical method according to Prof. Kuppuswamy.<ref name=":1" />

== Mind as a Cause of Bodily Ailments ==
The greater number of diseases are now believed to be functional and caused by maladjustment, conflict, frustration, or lack of mental balance with consequent disorder of the nervous system. How can the mind and nerves affect the body in such a way as to cause organic disease?

When the nerves do not function properly, ailments appear in certain organs. Psychologists tell us that many of the so called organic diseases had their beginning when the organs could not function properly owing to mental maladjustments, conflict, and consequent lack of balance in the nervous system. It is well known that the nervous system plays a vital and most important part in our lives. It is closely connected with the mind and is easily affected by the slightest mental disorder. Therefore, mental troubles which are reflected in the nervous system can be shown as the real cause of many functional diseases. Also many cases of insanity, neuroses and psychoses, can be traced to mental dissatisfaction and agitation, frustration and conflict.<ref name=":3">Swami Akhilananda. ''Hindu Psychology, Its Meaning for the West.'' London: George Routledge & Sons Ltd.</ref>

Although western psychologists formed different schools of thought according to their various theories of the subjective and objective elements of consciousness and the relation of these elements to the physical body, they all studied the conscious elements only, ignoring the subconscious and superconscious states of mind. From their observations, many of them came to the conclusion that consciousness and soul had no existence separate from physical brain matter and that they were really only products of brain matter. Materialistic thinkers completely ignored the fact that there could be a separate existence of mind or consciousness.

=== Mind exists beyond body ===
Further the mind usually functions in ordinary persons through the nervous system and brain cells, just as electricity functions and is manifested through wires and electrical apparatus. Yet one cannot conclude that the electricity and the wires are identical. Similarly, the mind in its functionings, conscious or otherwise, cannot be identified with the instruments, such as nerves and brain cells, through which it works or has expression.

The trend of modern science, unlike the older schools of thought are taking a liberal point of view in recent years and are open to the conviction that the mind may continue to exist even after the dissolution of the body and brain.<ref name=":3" />

According to Freud, Jung, and other psychologists, the greater portion of the mind is actually submerged, unknown to every one of us. Indian psychology agrees with them in this respect. The submerged mind, the subconscious state, is a potent factor and powerful enough to determine even conscious tendencies. Often we do not realize what influences are hidden there. A man may not be aware of the forces that lie beneath the surface of his mind, nor can these forces be suspected by an untrained observer. Indian psychologists call these hidden mental forces as "'''samskaras'''". These samskaras are different from the [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|Samskaras]] or purificatory sacraments prescribed in the Grhyasutras to be undergone from birth to death.<ref name=":3" /> The Samskaras are also referred to as "'''Vasanas'''". Vedanta philosophy conceptualizes Atman as the core of personality which is the prime control of the mind, body, and intellect, but Vasanas (or the inherent tendencies) determine the nature and activities originating from them.<ref name=":4" /> This difference between the mind and Atman has always confused the Western philosophers, till the researches of Freud, Jung, and Adler recognized the reality of unconscious. Cartesian dualism differentiating mind from matter is very recent to the Western thought while the Indian philosophy, particularly the Upanishads understood the mind “more from within than from without.”<ref>Mishra A, Mathai T, Ram D. ''History of psychiatry: An Indian perspective''. Ind Psychiatry J 2018;27:21-6</ref>

=== Tendencies of the Mind ===
Ancient Indian seer-psychologists do not agree with the view that man has a basic destructive tendency. Suicide, war, and all other such destructive tendencies are not expressions of the normal mind. It seems that Freud and other psychoanalysts make unnecessary and uncalled-for generalizations from the study of pathological cases. It is also equally illogical and superficial to trace the death or destructive urge even in religious self-abnegation and sacrifice. An unbiased understanding of the true spirit of religious culture will convince us that Freudian conclusions of this sort are thoroughly unjustified. The view of the Indian psychologists is just the opposite. They come to the conclusion that there is an urge for eternal happiness and eternal existence in the human mind. The search after abiding happiness, bliss, is the real motive power behind man’s activities both conscious and unconscious. According to the Indian psychological schools, the greatest expression of mind lies in its total illumination, which is achieved by the subjective methods of concentration and meditation and consequent mental integration. The mind must be synthesized in order for a person to achieve real success. Greatness of mind can be judged not by its ability in action but rather by its integration and unification.<ref name=":3" />

== References ==