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Vidya (विद्या)

2020-07-23T07:52:45Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vidya (Samskrit : विद्या), a word, devoid of an English equivalent, and loosely translated as Learning or Education was regarded as the best agency for improving society at all times and hence focus was that it should be available to all those who are qualified to receive it. Upanayana was the samskara, that was usually performed, to mark the initiation of a child (of all varnas and both genders) into education.<ref name=":0" /> It was further declared in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad that<blockquote>... विद्यया देवलोको देवलोको वै लोकाना श्रेष्ठस् तस्माद्विद्यां प्रशसन्ति ॥ यद्वै किञ्चानूक्तम् तस्य सर्वस्य ब्रह्मेत्येकता .... तस्मात् पुत्रमनुशिष्टं लोक्यमाहुस् तस्मादेनमनुशासति । (Brha. Upan. 1.5.16 and 17)<ref>Brhdaranayaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1 Brahmana 5])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>... vidyayā devaloko devaloko vai lokānā śreṣṭhas tasmādvidyāṁ praśasanti ॥ yadvai kiñcānūktam tasya sarvasya brahmetyekatā .... tasmāt putramanuśiṣṭaṁ lokyamāhus tasmādenamanuśāsati ।</blockquote>One can attain the devaloka through vidya alone; devaloka being the best of the (three) worlds. Hence vidya is to be praised. (Here vidya is taken to mean meditation or that knowledge of Self required for attaining the higher worlds). Whatever is studied is all unified in the word Brahman.... Therefore they speak of an educated son as being conducive to the world. Hence (a father) teaches his son (Page No 230 of Reference <ref name=":10">Swami Madhavananda. (1950 Third Edition) ''Brhadaranyaka Upanishad with the commentry of Shankaracharya. Mayavati'' : Advaita Ashrama</ref>).

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
While the goal of education is attainment of knowledge of the Self, students were primarily taught the Vedas and associated Vaidika Vangmaya as the stepping stones to learn and practice the Purusharthas, [[Trivarga (त्रिवर्गः)|Trivarga]] - Dharma, Artha and Kama which was then used to attain the fourth one, namely, Moksha. Hence people of different varnas irrespective of their gender, social and financial status, received at least the rudiment of literary, philosophical, theological, social and professional education, until the first millennium of the Christian era when conducting upanayanas decreased among the varnas and girls were married at the age of 10 owing to several causes.<ref name=":0">Altekar, A. S. (1944) ''Education in Ancient India.'' Benares : Nand Kishore and Bros.,</ref>
==Classification of Vidya==
The Mundakopanishad refers to two levels of learning in Saunaka Angirasa Samvada, as given below <blockquote>द्वे विद्ये वेदितव्ये इति ह स्म, यद्ब्रह्मविदो वदन्ति परा चैवापरा च ॥ ४ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>dve vidye veditavye iti ha sma, yadbrahmavido vadanti parā caivāparā ca ॥ 4 ॥</blockquote><blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः, शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । अथ परा यया तदक्षरमधिगम्यते ॥ ५ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.4-5)<ref>Mundaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundaka 1 Khanda 1])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvedo yajurvedaḥ sāmavedo'tharvavedaḥ, śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chando jyotiṣamiti । atha parā yayā tadakṣaramadhigamyate ॥ 5 ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.4-5)</blockquote>Summary : There are two kinds of knowledge to be acquired as per tradition, which according to the knowers of Vedas, those who realised the supreme Truth, is - the higher, knowledge of the Supreme Self (Para Vidya) and the lower, knowledge of virtue and vice and their means and ends (Apara Vidya). Of these the lower (knowledge) comprises the Rigveda, Yajur veda, Sama veda, Atharva veda, Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotisha (texts dealing with pronunciation, code of yajnas, grammar, etymology, meter and astronomy). Then there is the higher (Para knowledge) by which is attained that Aksharam or Immutable Brahman.<ref name=":8">Swami Gambhirananda (1937) ''Eight Upanishads, Volume 2 (Aitareya, Mundaka, Mandukya and Karika and Prasna)'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>

Thus we have a broad classification of Vidya as
# '''पराविद्या ॥ Para Vidya''' - higher knowledge for Self Realization
# '''अपराविद्या ॥ Apara Vidya''' - lower knowledge required for life
The word Vidya (विद्या), devoid of an English equivalent and loosely translated as Education, deals with that procedural knowledge essential for understanding the worldly social, philosophical and theological aspects of Sanatana Dharma. Ancient seers had holistic perspective as to why a student should be given the higher knowledge of Self in different forms such as [[Brahmavidya (ब्रह्मविद्या)|Brahmavidya]], [[Bhumavidya (भूमविद्या)|Bhumavidya]], [[Panchagnividya (पञ्चाग्निविद्या)|Panchagnividya]], each of which was one way to achieve the common goal of Moksha. It may appear that preceptors of the ancient ages have focused only on the ultimate adhyatmik goal of Atmavidya (attainment of the knowledge of the the Self) which is more a personal goal for the student. The knowledge of the Brahman is distinctively mentioned and it is called the higher knowledge since, even after the mastery of the assemblage of words, the realisation of the Self is not possible without other efforts consisting of approaching the teacher and so on, as well as detachment. Unlike the Agnihotra and other yajnas which require the performance of an action subsequent to the understanding of the text, through a combination of numerous accessories, the domain of higher knowledge does not require actions, nothing remains to be performed.<ref name=":8" />
== व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology ==
According to Shabdakalpadhruma, Vidya (विद्या) originates from the dhatu विदँ used in the meaning of Jnana (ज्ञाने).<ref>Shabdakalpadhruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Word विगानं])</ref>

तत्तु मोक्षे धीः । इति जटाधरः ॥ That which is the knowledge of Moksha - as defined by Jatadhara. <blockquote>परमोत्तमपुरुषार्थसाधनीभूता विद्या ब्रह्मज्ञानरूपा । इति नागोजीभट्टः ॥</blockquote><blockquote>paramottamapuruṣārthasādhanībhūtā vidyā brahmajñānarūpā । iti nāgojībhaṭṭaḥ ॥</blockquote>Vidya is that form of Brahmajnana which is the instrument to achieve Paramottama Purushartha namely Moksha as per Nagoji Bhatta.

By the word Vidya is implied the realization of the thing to be known.

In this article we reflect upon the syllabus of ancient shikshana vidhana (education system) which consisted of imparting Apara Vidya of worldly knowledge. Vidya was said to be complete with the adhyayana of Chaturdasha Vidyas (and Astadasha Vidyas) dealt in our [[Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)|Vaidika Vangmaya]] imparted by Gurus to students before putting them on the path of seeking Para Vidya.
==विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>http://tiny.cc/9vplhz</ref> as they give comprehensive knowledge of all the four Purusharthas namely, Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, the first three pertaining to worldly knowledge. These include the
* Chaturvedas - [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The Four Vedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda)
* Vedangas - The Six [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]] (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotisha)
* Upangas - (Puranas, Nyaya shastra (and Vaiseshika), Mimamsa and Dharmashastra).<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
===चतुर्दशविद्याः ॥ Chaturdasha Vidyas===
Agni Purana, one of the oldest Puranas, gives the following information about the constituents Para and Apara Vidyas.<blockquote>ऋग्यजुःसामाश्चर्वाख्या विद्या विष्णुर्जगज्जनिः । छन्दः शिक्षा व्याकरणं निधण्टुज्योतिराख्यकाः ।। ३८३.२ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>r̥gyajuḥsāmāścarvākhyā vidyā viṣṇurjagajjaniḥ । chandaḥ śikṣā vyākaraṇaṁ nidhaṇṭujyotirākhyakāḥ ।। 383.2 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>निरुक्तधर्मशास्त्रादि मीमांसान्यायविस्तराः । आयुर्वेदपुराणाख्या धनुर्गन्धर्वविस्तराः ।। ३८३.३ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>niruktadharmaśāstrādi mīmāṁsānyāyavistarāḥ । āyurvedapurāṇākhyā dhanurgandharvavistarāḥ ।। 383.3 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>विद्या सैवार्थसास्त्राख्या वेदान्ताऽन्या हरिर्महान् । इत्येषा चापरा विद्या परविद्याऽक्षरं ।। ३८३.४ ।। (Agni. Pura. 383.2-4)<ref>Agni Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 383] AgniPurana Mahatmyam)</ref></blockquote><blockquote>vidyā saivārthasāstrākhyā vedāntā'nyā harirmahān । ityeṣā cāparā vidyā paravidyā'kṣaraṁ ।। 383.4 ।। (Agni. Pura. 383.2-4)</blockquote>According to Vachaspatya, '''Nandi Purana''' gives the 14 vidyasthanas as follows<blockquote>वेदादिषु चतुर्दशसु विद्यासु। ताश्च विद्याश्चतुर्दश प्रोक्ताः क्रमेण तु यथास्थिति। षडङ्गमिश्रितावेदा धर्म्मशास्त्रं पुराणकम्। मीमांमातर्कमपि च एता विद्याश्चतुर्दश | नन्दि पु०।<ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>vedādiṣu caturdaśasu vidyāsu। tāśca vidyāścaturdaśa proktāḥ krameṇa tu yathāsthiti। ṣaḍaṅgamiśritāvedā dharmmaśāstraṃ purāṇakam। mīmāṃmātarkamapi ca etā vidyāścaturdaśa| nandi pu।</blockquote>Meaning : Fourteen vidyas are given as - vedas with their 6 angas (अङ्ग-s), dharmashastra, purana, mimamsa (मीमांसा) with tarka (तर्कः).

According to '''Vachaspatya''',<blockquote>पुराणन्यायमीमांसाधर्म्मशास्त्राङ्गमिश्रिताः। वेदाः स्थानानि विद्यानां धर्म्मस्य च चतुर्दश” या० स्मृतौ विद्यास्थानत्वोक्तेस्तासां तथात्वम्।<ref name=":22222" /> (Yagn. Smrt. 1.3)</blockquote><blockquote>purāṇanyāyamīmāṃsādharmmaśāstrāṅgamiśritāḥ। vedāḥ sthānāni vidyānāṃ dharmmasya ca caturdaśa" yā. smṛtau vidyāsthānatvoktestāsāṃ tathātvam। (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote>Summary: Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Dharmashastras combined with vedangas, and vedas form the 14 vidyastanas as given in '''Yagnavalkya Smriti'''.

Puranas such as '''Vayu Purana (1.69.78)'''<ref>Vayu Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC%E0%A5%A7 Purvardha Adhyaya 61])</ref> '''Vishnudharmottara Purana (1.74.32)'''<ref>Vishnudharmottara Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD%E0%A5%AA Khanda 1, Adhyaya 74])</ref> refer to these abodes of knowledge as 14 vidyas as does the '''Mahabharata (Shanti Parva 12.122.31 and Asvamedhika Parva 14.116.15)''' given in the famous sloka below<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः । पुराणं धमर्शास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुदर्श ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ । purāṇaṃ dhamarśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścatudarśa ॥</blockquote>
===अष्टादशविद्याः ॥ Ashtadasha Vidyas===
However, '''Vishnupurana'''<ref name=":12">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref> enumerates the existence of 18 vidyasthanas by adding [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]], [[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]], [[Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः)]] and [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]] (four Upavedas) to the previously explained 14 vidyasthanas as given in the following shlokas.<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः। पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुर्दश ॥ २८ ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ। purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścaturdaśa ॥ 28 ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेत्यनुक्रमात् । अर्थशास्त्रं परं तस्मात् विद्या ह्यष्टादश स्मृताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvedo dhanurvedo gāndharvaścetyanukramāt । arthaśāstraṃ paraṃ tasmāt vidyā hyaṣṭādaśa smṛtāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>'''Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1.2.6)'''<ref>Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1 [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5)/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 2])</ref> also describes the 14 Vidyas and 18 vidyas as given above.
==विद्यायाः प्रयोजनम् ॥ Goals of Vidya==
Manusmrti (6.92) defines ten lakshanas of Dharma, the eighth of which is Vidya. Thus to achieve the [[Dharmika Jivana Vidhana (धार्मिकजीवनविधानम्)|dharmika jivana vidhana]] one has to undergo the process of acquiring vidya or education.

The goal of Vidya is to impress and develop a dharmika mindset right from the young age, at the laukika (worldy) level, which can be achieved by the study of Apara Vidya. Vidya is that which
* interests and orients one towards Dharma and Sadachara (appropriate code of behaviour)
* dispels the enmity and animosity by connecting with the underlying all pervading universal life force
* helps one to discover the unity among the diversity of beings (including mankind)
* leads one on the path of infinite bliss
Thus, purified and prepared a student according to his choice seeks attainment of knowledge of Self by the practice of Para Vidya. In the 10th Adhyaya of Bhagavadgita (10.32) Shri Krishna identifies Himself with Adhyatmavidya (the ultimate form of knowledge) as follows <blockquote>अध्यात्मविद्या विद्यानां । Vidyanam, among knowledges; I am the adhyatma-vidya<ref>Bhagavadgita ([https://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/srimad?language=dv&field_chapter_value=10&field_nsutra_value=32&choose=1 Adhyaya 10])</ref></blockquote>Knowledge of the Self, is the highest and ultimate knowledge because of its leading to Moksha.
With this significant background about the ancient education system of India, we now look into that unique Guru-shisya parampara maintained by the Gurukula system of education, which has shaped Bharat's young minds from ages and the need to continue the system even in the present day. In the following section we reflect on the how the Prachina Shikshana Vidhana or Ancient Education System evolved with defined goals and principles in line with Sanatana Dharma.

== Aspects of Educational System ==
In this section we deal with the various aspects of the ancient educational system, who constituted the chief roles, what were the samskaras involved and what was the method of education in this system.

=== Preceptors of Vidya ===
The central figure around which the ancient society rested on was the [[Acharya (आचार्यः)]], called variously as preceptor, a teacher, lecturer, professor or instructor in the present days.

Sanatana Dharma has held a high regard for the mother (janani), who is the first preceptor of a child followed by the father and the seers who imparted knowledge and were founders of a lineage of students. Whether living in recluse in forests or in cities or Gurukulas, shaping the future generations had always rested on the shoulders of Gurus and Acharyas.<blockquote>उपाध्यायान्दशाचार्य आचार्याणां शतं पिता । सहस्रं तु पितॄन्माता गौरवेणातिरिच्यते । । २.१४५ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.145)<ref name=":1">Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>upādhyāyāndaśācārya ācāryāṇāṁ śataṁ pitā । sahasraṁ tu pitr̥̄nmātā gauraveṇātiricyate । । 2.145 । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.145)</blockquote>An Acharya is ten times greater than Upadhyaya, the father is ten times greater than Acharya; but the mother is a thousand times more venerable than the father.

=== Receptors of Vidya ===
Next important aspect about education pertains to the receptors of vidya, the students, who are the bearers of future. The recipient of education from a Guru or Acharya is called a shishya, an antevasi a chatra etc. Studentship is the main activity of a young child initiated into the [[Brahmacharyashrama (ब्रह्मचर्याश्रमः)|Brahmacharyashrama]] marked by the [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]] samskara. It is the first ashrama of the four ashramas which a person goes through in his life and he is called a Brahmachari.

A child was required to have certain qualities to become a good student. Ancient seers emphasized on the importance of habits, routine, imitation and association to secure ready cooperation of the shishya towards education. At a young impressionable age a child can be moulded to develop the required [[Vidyarthi's Qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि)|vidyarthi's qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि)]] and such habits constitute a second nature in adulthood.
==== अन्तेवासी ॥ Antevasi ====
Vachaspatyam defines Antevasi as अन्ते निकटे विद्याग्रहणाय वसति। ante nikaṭe vidyāgrahaṇāya vasati। <ref>Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA See अन्तेवासिन्]) </ref> one who resides at near the Guru for learning Vidya.

According to Amarakosha a Shishya (शिष्यः) and Chatra (छात्रः) are synonyms for Antevasi (छात्रान्तेवासिशिष्यान्तेषद एकार्थता इमे ॥ as per Jatadhara).<ref name=":9">Shabdakalpadruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE See Shishya (शिष्यः)])</ref>

While the above terms refer to a current student, a graduated student is called a snataka.
==== स्नातकः ॥ Snataka ====
Vachaspatyam refers to snataka as follows
: वेदाध्ययनानन्तरं गार्हस्थ्याय कृतसमावर्त्तनांङ्गस्नाने गृहस्थभेदे तच्च व्रतं मिता। vedādhyayanānantaraṁ gārhasthyāya kr̥tasamāvarttanāṁṅgasnāne gr̥hasthabhede tacca vrataṁ mitā। <ref>Vachaspatyam ( [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95 See Snataka (स्नातक)])</ref>
[[Snataka (स्नातकः)|Snataka]] refers to one who, after having completed the study of Vedas, for entering the Grhasthashrama, has performed the rite of Samavartana which is an abulation that indicates the graduation from brahmacharya.

By the end of his studies a [[Snataka Gunas (स्नातकगुणाः)|snataka develops important qualities]] and is bound by the [[Snataka Dharma (स्नातकधर्मः)|snataka dharma]] which includes a certain set of rules and responsibilities for a student who has undergone samavartana.

=== Samskaras related to Vidya ===
Samskaras related to education are those activities prescribed by the vaidika and dharmika texts to prepare a young mind to receive the vast knowledge and perform the required vaidika rites.

==== अक्षराभ्यासः ॥ Aksharabhyasa or Vidyarambha ====
Also called as Aksharavishkarana (अक्षराविष्करणम्), was performed at the commencement of the primary education. Fifth year was prescribed but if postponed it had to be performed before upanayana samskara. Though not mentioned in the Grhya sutras under the Shodasa samskaras, this ritual is mentioned in the recent dharmashastras according to some scholars but not attached with importance as the Upanayana.<ref name=":0" /> Grhyasutras and Dharmasutras have laid down rituals for occasions like Annaprasana (first instance of food given to child) and grihya-nishkramana (first outing of the child) but failed to mention the commencement of education prior to Upanayana samskara. It may be attributed to the reason that writing of alphabet was not prevalent as commencement of vedic education involved memorization of mantras as against writing.

The activity of Aksharabhyasa is fairly simple, requiring the young boy or girl to worship Sarasvati Devi, the devata for learning, Vinayaka, devata for removing obstacles and the deities of the family. The father or purohit makes the child write the name of deity (usually Shiva for auspiciousness) on rice with his finger (golden or silver pen in some instances). Suitable danas are made to the purohit and the Brahmanas invited for the ceremony which marks the end of the ceremony.

==== उपनयनम् ॥ Upanayana ====
One of the important Samskaras, [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]] signifies the transition of a child to a student. It literally means taking the student to a teacher in order to hand him over to the latter for his education. This samskara was performed at the time a student commenced his vaidika vidya under the guidance of an Acharya with whom he is to live until his education is complete. The first guru of a child is the mother followed by the father who teaches him worldly knowledge until a long time. Usually for higher knowledge children were sent to learn from a scholarly person. Smritis give a detailed set of rules about the different aspects of Upanayana for different varnas. Gradually as vedic studies fell into the background, Upanayana samskara has gone out of vogue among the Kshatriya and Vaishya communities and remained only for the Brahmanas.

This samskara has quite a few aspects associated with it such as the age at which it is performed, the auspicious day, the kaupina, girdle or mekhala, the deer skin, the staff, the yajnopaveeta, the Savitri mantras to be recited, samidhadhana (the process of offering samidh into the fire) sandhayavandana each having special significance. The ceremonial bhiksha (begging alms) was a practice that commenced on the day of the Upanayana. The rites are performed for three days during which time the student is said to remain in an embryonic condition, on the fourth day he is said to have taken his adhyatmik birth, and so is called a Dvija henceforth. Medhajanana ritual performed by the preceptor marks the termination of the 3 day long ceremony.

==== समावर्तनम् ॥ Samavartana ====
[[Samavartana (समावर्तनम्)|Samavartana]], which means "returning" was performed at the end of the Brahmacharya period to mark the termination of the educational course when the student returns to his house from the teacher's home.

==== उपाकर्म ॥ Upakarma ====
The annual session of education in ancient times began soon after the commencement of the rainy season when the sowing operations were over and crops had began to sprout. By the full moon of month of Sravana (August) the sowing activity would be over and the ritual of Chhandasam [[Upakarma (उपाकर्म)|Upakarma]] (छान्दसाम् उपाकर्म), i.e., gathering the vedic knowledge, was performed on that day. This commencement ritual was mostly for the students and teachers in earlier times. However in the present day, it is being followed by all dvija brahmacharis and grhasthas (who have undergone Upanayana samskara, married or unmarried).<ref name=":0" />

=== विद्याभ्यासे विषयाः ॥ Subjects of Study ===
The history of ancient Indian education spans several millennia and thus we find considerable changes in the curricula in the course of centuries. When the outlook on life changes or when new branches of knowledge are developed, schools and colleges scramble to incorporate those changes.

==== वैदिकविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject Matter of Vaidika Vidya ====
During the vedic era naturally study of vedas formed the main topic of study. Stress was given on pronunciation and intonation of mantras, which required the student to hear and repeat what was said. Learning principles of chandas were encouraged so as to develop the powers of uttering the mantras. Those who took up priestly activities (paurohitya) had to study and commit to memory details of the various rituals and associated mantras. To prepare yajnavedis they had to learn rudimentary geometry at least. To find the appropriate muhuratas, planetary placement, seasons etc they had to learn Astronomy. Grammar was not given high importance, thus we find Vaidika Bhasha vyakarana was lot more flexible than the present day Laukika bhasha vyakarana.<ref name=":0" />

In the later vedic period, with the Brahmana literature becoming extensive and explanatory in nature, new subjects started developing. Vedic language and mantras were being differentiated and to preserve the pristine form of the mantras, scholars insisted that vedic mantras should be committed to memory in their precise traditional intonation and accents. Students were not at liberty to change a difficult archaic word for a simpler newer word. Education which mainly included the study of vedas gradually expanded to include the explanatory sciences also.

==== अपराविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject Matter of Apara Vidya ====
Chaturdasha Vidyastanas which included the Vedas and their Vedangas were the chief subjects after the Vedic period for a long time. Vidya (knowledge), pertaining to a single knowledge system (Brahmavidya etc) of the olden days gradually got absorbed into Vedanta system, a broader heading covering all such specialized topics. Gradually as studying vedas required more understanding, the study of Shad Vedangas became important. It is to be noted that the subjects explaining the Vedas themselves gained more significance and subsequently were studied independent of the Vedas themselves. Some of the Vedangas such as Shiksha, [[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]], [[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotisha]], became highly specialized by themselves and needed years of study excluding the Vedic studies.

Vidya (education) then came to represent concept based knowledge systems of Shastras of all kinds in the more recent millenia. The [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Shad Vedangas]], [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]] and [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|Upavedas]] gave rise to many subjects such as Ganita (Mathematics), Nyaya (Judicial system) and Nyaya (Logic). [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]] ramified into specializations such as Shastrachikitsa (Surgery) and Kayachikitsa (General Medicine), [[Rasayana shastra (रसायनशास्त्रम्)]] dealt with chemistry, Bhoutika shastra included physics. The knowledge of alloys, metallurgy, geology, botany sciences, warfare, architecture, large scale constructions, all such topics developed over a period of time into professional subjects.

==== वेदान्तविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject Matter of Vedanta Vidya ====
A considerable portion of the major Upanishads is devoted to the Upasanas or meditative exercises which are called Vidyas. A good number of these Vidyas in the sense of in-depth higher level of learning are discussed in all the 12 Mukhya Upanishads (three of them more important Upanishads namely, Chandogya, Brhdaranyaka and Taittriya Upanishads) and in the Vedanta Sutras or Brahmasutras. The Upanishads mention them in different places while in the Vedanta Sutras, Adhyaya 3, Pada 3 takes them up together and discusses them. Practice of these Vidyas have been seen in relation to yajnas and some of them yield Kamyaphala (fruits of yajna) as have been given in Sutra 3.3.60. Hence some of these Vidyas are also called Kamya Vidyas. Shri Adi Shankaracharya in his bhasyas interprets these Vidyas as practical exercises of meditation. Also called as Brahmavidya, 32 such Vidyas have been given.<ref>Aiyar, Narayanaswami K., (1919 First Edition) ''The Thirty-two Vidyas. Madras:'' The Adyar Library and Research Center</ref>

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 800px; font-style: italic;|
* [[Ishvaravidya (ईश्वरविद्या)]]
* [[Paramapurushavidya (परमपुरुशविद्या)]]
* [[Sad Vidya (सद्विद्या)]]
* [[Anandamaya Vidya (आनन्दमयविद्या)]]
* [[Paramajyoti Vidya ()]]
* [[Sandilya Vidya]]
* [[Paryanka Vidya]]
* [[Uddalaka Vidya]]
* [[Aksaraksara Vidya]]
* [[Bhumavidya (भूमविद्या)]]
* [[Gargi Akshara Vidya]]
* [[Satyakama Vidya]]
* [[Daharavidya (दहरविद्या)]]
* [[Angushtamatra Vidya]]
* [[Jyotishamjyoti Vidya]]
* [[Maitreyi Vidya]]
* [[Gayatri Vidya]]
* [[Ushasti Kahola Vidya]]
* [[Antaradityavidya or Adityavidya (आदित्यविद्या)]]
* [[Upakosala Vidya]]
* [[Madhuvidya (मधुविद्या)]]
* [[BalakiVidya ()]]
* [[Akash Vidya (अक्षिविद्या)]]
* [[Pranavidya (प्राणविद्या)]]
* [[Pratardanavidya (प्रतर्दनविद्या) ]]
* [[Nachiketavidya (नचिकेतविद्या)]]
* [[Vaisvanara Vidya]]
* [[Samvarga Vidya]]
* [[Panchagnividya (पञ्चाग्निविद्या)]]
* [[Akshi Vidya]]
* [[Bhrugu Varuni Vidya]]
* [[Srimannyasa Vidya]]}}
Udgita and Purushavidya (पुरुषविद्या) are two others that have been described.
=== Terms Related to Study ===
Vidya involves the study of the subject matter by the student. If the subject matter is Vedic study it is specifically called Svadhyaya (स्वाध्यायम्), while study of any subject in general is termed as Adhyayana. Reading is Pathana (पठनम्) and repeating a mantra is termed as Japa (जपम्). Japa particularly relates to mantras and does not apply to subject matter.

==== स्वाध्यायम् ॥ Svadhyaya ====
The students of ancient days had to recite the lessons already learned either to themselves or to senior pupils and this was called their Svadhyaya. This promoted their ability to retain and recollect the studied veda mantras.<ref name=":7">Ray, Brojasundar (1938) ''Aims and Ideals of Ancient Indian Culture.'' Calcutta: A. Roy and Co.</ref> One cannot but remember the [[Samavartana (समावर्तनम्)|Samavartana]] address to the outgoing students mentioned in Taittriyopanishad, Shikshavalli which emphasizes the importance of svadhyaya. <blockquote>सत्यं वद , धर्मं चर, स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः ।... ... (Tait. Upan. Shiks. 11.1)<ref>Taittriya Upanishad [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4% (Shiksha Valli Anuvaka 11])</ref> Make no mistake about the study of the Veda..</blockquote>In ancient times (and to a limited extent even today), different families studied a specific set of texts from the entire set of vedic literature. For example, a family belonging to the Deshastha Brahmana community in Maharashtra (India) could chant a specific group of 10 texts related to the Rigveda (the Rigveda Samhita, Aitareya Brahmaṇa, Aitareya Araṇyaka, Aitareya Upanishad, Ashvalayana Shrauta Sūtra, Ashvalayana Grhya Sutra, Panini’s Așhtadhyayi, Pingala’s Chandas sutras, Yaska’s Nirukta and Katyayana’s Sarvanukramani) during their lifelong study. This same set of texts were studied by the members of the family as their primary focus generation after generation and constituted their traditional vedic study or Svadhyaya. In this form of study the focus is on the recitation of the veda mantras and is not necessarily on their meaning.<ref name=":3">Sacred HIndu Scriptures and Languages - an Introduction by Vishal Agarwal ([https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=forums&srcid=MTQyNTE0MTcxODQxNzMxMDM3MDQBMDcxOTk5MzkzMTE3Mjc4NjMzNjIBWGJGZ25zZjRCUUFKATAuMQEBdjI&authuser=0 Page 4])</ref>

Taittriya Aranyakam lays down the adyayanavidhi of Svadhyaya which has been explained in Mahabhashyam (of Patanjali) as a vidhi that should be followed at all costs.<blockquote>नित्यो हि `स्वाध्यायोऽध्येतव्यः' इत्यध्ययनविधिः। यस्माद् ब्राह्मणेन निष्कारणो धर्मः षडङ्गो वेदोऽध्येयः, तदर्थश्च ज्ञातव्य: (तैत्तिरीय-आरण्यकम्, २.१५)(Mahabhashyam 3.1.3)<ref>Mahabhashyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Paspashnikam])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>nityo hi `svādhyāyo'dhyetavyaḥ' ityadhyayanavidhiḥ। yasmād brāhmaṇena niṣkāraṇo dharmaḥ ṣaḍaṅgo vedo'dhyeyaḥ, tadarthaśca jñātavya:’ (taittirīya-āraṇyakam, 2.15)(Mahabhashyam 3.1.3)</blockquote>A brahmana should without questioning the reason should learn the Dharmas, the Shadangas (vedangas) and the vedas and know their meaning. Svadhyaya is a nityakarma. The phala or result of studying svadhyaya is also given in the same anuvaka as follows <blockquote>स्वाध्यायमधीते सर्वाँल्लोकाञ्जयति सर्वाल्लोकाननृणोऽनुसंचरति तदेषाऽभ्युक्ता, इति । (Tait. Aran. 2.15)<ref>Taittriya Aranyaka ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A Prapathaka 2 Anuvaka 15]) </ref></blockquote><blockquote>svādhyāyamadhīte sarvām̐llokāñjayati sarvāllokānanr̥ṇo'nusaṁcarati tadeṣā'bhyuktā, iti । (Tait. Aran. 2.15)</blockquote>One who studies svadhyaya will acquire (surpass) all the worlds, will be free of all rnas (debts such as pitru rna, matr rna etc) and can freely move across all lokas, this is clearly stated (as the phala).

==== अध्ययनम् ॥ Adhyayana ====
It includes the study of texts in general to imbibe their teachings, and reflect upon their meaning. There may or may not be any chanting involved. The student may study them privately, or under the guidance of a Guru.<ref name=":3" />

==== पठनम् ॥ Pathana ====
Pathana generally means to read and here the context is to recite aloud, to learn by repeating the mantras etc.

Students were doing Pathana before manuscripts were accessible to one and all. After they came into usage, they were also scarce and available to, say, senior students having access to the library. [[Vedapatha Paddhati (वेदपाठपद्धतिः)|Vedapatha paddhati]] is the way the recitation of vedas is to be done by the student. There are as many as 8 different ways in which mantras are recited and memorized in olden days. This culture is gradually losing ground in the present days.

One can see that there were different methods of education employed which led to the preservation of a vast body of knowledge, the Vedas and shastras.

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Education Series]]

Vidya (विद्या)

2020-07-23T07:48:38Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vidya (Samskrit : विद्या), a word, devoid of an English equivalent, and loosely translated as Learning or Education was regarded as the best agency for improving society at all times and hence focus was that it should be available to all those who are qualified to receive it. Upanayana was the samskara, that was usually performed, to mark the initiation of a child (of all varnas and both genders) into education.<ref name=":0" /> It was further declared in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad that<blockquote>... विद्यया देवलोको देवलोको वै लोकाना श्रेष्ठस् तस्माद्विद्यां प्रशसन्ति ॥ यद्वै किञ्चानूक्तम् तस्य सर्वस्य ब्रह्मेत्येकता .... तस्मात् पुत्रमनुशिष्टं लोक्यमाहुस् तस्मादेनमनुशासति । (Brha. Upan. 1.5.16 and 17)<ref>Brhdaranayaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1 Brahmana 5])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>... vidyayā devaloko devaloko vai lokānā śreṣṭhas tasmādvidyāṁ praśasanti ॥ yadvai kiñcānūktam tasya sarvasya brahmetyekatā .... tasmāt putramanuśiṣṭaṁ lokyamāhus tasmādenamanuśāsati ।</blockquote>One can attain the devaloka through vidya alone; devaloka being the best of the (three) worlds. Hence vidya is to be praised. (Here vidya is taken to mean meditation or that knowledge of Self required for attaining the higher worlds). Whatever is studied is all unified in the word Brahman.... Therefore they speak of an educated son as being conducive to the world. Hence (a father) teaches his son (Page No 230 of Reference <ref name=":10">Swami Madhavananda. (1950 Third Edition) ''Brhadaranyaka Upanishad with the commentry of Shankaracharya. Mayavati'' : Advaita Ashrama</ref>).

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
While the goal of education is attainment of knowledge of the Self, students were primarily taught the Vedas and associated Vaidika Vangmaya as the stepping stones to learn and practice the Purusharthas, [[Trivarga (त्रिवर्गः)|Trivarga]] - Dharma, Artha and Kama which was then used to attain the fourth one, namely, Moksha. Hence people of different varnas irrespective of their gender, social and financial status, received at least the rudiment of literary, philosophical, theological, social and professional education, until the first millennium of the Christian era when conducting upanayanas decreased among the varnas and girls were married at the age of 10 owing to several causes.<ref name=":0">Altekar, A. S. (1944) ''Education in Ancient India.'' Benares : Nand Kishore and Bros.,</ref>
==Classification of Vidya==
The Mundakopanishad refers to two levels of learning in Saunaka Angirasa Samvada, as given below <blockquote>द्वे विद्ये वेदितव्ये इति ह स्म, यद्ब्रह्मविदो वदन्ति परा चैवापरा च ॥ ४ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>dve vidye veditavye iti ha sma, yadbrahmavido vadanti parā caivāparā ca ॥ 4 ॥</blockquote><blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः, शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । अथ परा यया तदक्षरमधिगम्यते ॥ ५ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.4-5)<ref>Mundaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundaka 1 Khanda 1])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvedo yajurvedaḥ sāmavedo'tharvavedaḥ, śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chando jyotiṣamiti । atha parā yayā tadakṣaramadhigamyate ॥ 5 ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.4-5)</blockquote>Summary : There are two kinds of knowledge to be acquired as per tradition, which according to the knowers of Vedas, those who realised the supreme Truth, is - the higher, knowledge of the Supreme Self (Para Vidya) and the lower, knowledge of virtue and vice and their means and ends (Apara Vidya). Of these the lower (knowledge) comprises the Rigveda, Yajur veda, Sama veda, Atharva veda, Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotisha (texts dealing with pronunciation, code of yajnas, grammar, etymology, meter and astronomy). Then there is the higher (Para knowledge) by which is attained that Aksharam or Immutable Brahman.<ref name=":8">Swami Gambhirananda (1937) ''Eight Upanishads, Volume 2 (Aitareya, Mundaka, Mandukya and Karika and Prasna)'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>

Thus we have a broad classification of Vidya as
# '''पराविद्या ॥ Para Vidya''' - higher knowledge for Self Realization
# '''अपराविद्या ॥ Apara Vidya''' - lower knowledge required for life
The word Vidya (विद्या), devoid of an English equivalent and loosely translated as Education, deals with that procedural knowledge essential for understanding the worldly social, philosophical and theological aspects of Sanatana Dharma. Ancient seers had holistic perspective as to why a student should be given the higher knowledge of Self in different forms such as [[Brahmavidya (ब्रह्मविद्या)|Brahmavidya]], [[Bhumavidya (भूमविद्या)|Bhumavidya]], [[Panchagnividya (पञ्चाग्निविद्या)|Panchagnividya]], each of which was one way to achieve the common goal of Moksha. It may appear that preceptors of the ancient ages have focused only on the ultimate adhyatmik goal of Atmavidya (attainment of the knowledge of the the Self) which is more a personal goal for the student. The knowledge of the Brahman is distinctively mentioned and it is called the higher knowledge since, even after the mastery of the assemblage of words, the realisation of the Self is not possible without other efforts consisting of approaching the teacher and so on, as well as detachment. Unlike the Agnihotra and other yajnas which require the performance of an action subsequent to the understanding of the text, through a combination of numerous accessories, the domain of higher knowledge does not require actions, nothing remains to be performed.<ref name=":8" />
== व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology ==
According to Shabdakalpadhruma, Vidya (विद्या) originates from the dhatu विदँ used in the meaning of Jnana (ज्ञाने).<ref>Shabdakalpadhruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Word विगानं])</ref>

तत्तु मोक्षे धीः । इति जटाधरः ॥ That which is the knowledge of Moksha - as defined by Jatadhara. <blockquote>परमोत्तमपुरुषार्थसाधनीभूता विद्या ब्रह्मज्ञानरूपा । इति नागोजीभट्टः ॥</blockquote><blockquote>paramottamapuruṣārthasādhanībhūtā vidyā brahmajñānarūpā । iti nāgojībhaṭṭaḥ ॥</blockquote>Vidya is that form of Brahmajnana which is the instrument to achieve Paramottama Purushartha namely Moksha as per Nagoji Bhatta.

By the word Vidya is implied the realization of the thing to be known.

In this article we reflect upon the syllabus of ancient shikshana vidhana (education system) which consisted of imparting Apara Vidya of worldly knowledge. Vidya was said to be complete with the adhyayana of Chaturdasha Vidyas (and Astadasha Vidyas) dealt in our [[Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)|Vaidika Vangmaya]] imparted by Gurus to students before putting them on the path of seeking Para Vidya.
==विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref><nowiki>http://tiny.cc/9vplhz</nowiki></ref> as they give comprehensive knowledge of all the four Purusharthas namely, Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, the first three pertaining to worldly knowledge. These include the
* Chaturvedas - [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The Four Vedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda)
* Vedangas - The Six [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]] (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotisha)
* Upangas - (Puranas, Nyaya shastra (and Vaiseshika), Mimamsa and Dharmashastra).<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
===चतुर्दशविद्याः ॥ Chaturdasha Vidyas===
Agni Purana, one of the oldest Puranas, gives the following information about the constituents Para and Apara Vidyas.<blockquote>ऋग्यजुःसामाश्चर्वाख्या विद्या विष्णुर्जगज्जनिः । छन्दः शिक्षा व्याकरणं निधण्टुज्योतिराख्यकाः ।। ३८३.२ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>r̥gyajuḥsāmāścarvākhyā vidyā viṣṇurjagajjaniḥ । chandaḥ śikṣā vyākaraṇaṁ nidhaṇṭujyotirākhyakāḥ ।। 383.2 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>निरुक्तधर्मशास्त्रादि मीमांसान्यायविस्तराः । आयुर्वेदपुराणाख्या धनुर्गन्धर्वविस्तराः ।। ३८३.३ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>niruktadharmaśāstrādi mīmāṁsānyāyavistarāḥ । āyurvedapurāṇākhyā dhanurgandharvavistarāḥ ।। 383.3 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>विद्या सैवार्थसास्त्राख्या वेदान्ताऽन्या हरिर्महान् । इत्येषा चापरा विद्या परविद्याऽक्षरं ।। ३८३.४ ।। (Agni. Pura. 383.2-4)<ref>Agni Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 383] AgniPurana Mahatmyam)</ref></blockquote><blockquote>vidyā saivārthasāstrākhyā vedāntā'nyā harirmahān । ityeṣā cāparā vidyā paravidyā'kṣaraṁ ।। 383.4 ।। (Agni. Pura. 383.2-4)</blockquote>According to Vachaspatya, '''Nandi Purana''' gives the 14 vidyasthanas as follows<blockquote>वेदादिषु चतुर्दशसु विद्यासु। ताश्च विद्याश्चतुर्दश प्रोक्ताः क्रमेण तु यथास्थिति। षडङ्गमिश्रितावेदा धर्म्मशास्त्रं पुराणकम्। मीमांमातर्कमपि च एता विद्याश्चतुर्दश | नन्दि पु०।<ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>vedādiṣu caturdaśasu vidyāsu। tāśca vidyāścaturdaśa proktāḥ krameṇa tu yathāsthiti। ṣaḍaṅgamiśritāvedā dharmmaśāstraṃ purāṇakam। mīmāṃmātarkamapi ca etā vidyāścaturdaśa| nandi pu।</blockquote>Meaning : Fourteen vidyas are given as - vedas with their 6 angas (अङ्ग-s), dharmashastra, purana, mimamsa (मीमांसा) with tarka (तर्कः).

According to '''Vachaspatya''',<blockquote>पुराणन्यायमीमांसाधर्म्मशास्त्राङ्गमिश्रिताः। वेदाः स्थानानि विद्यानां धर्म्मस्य च चतुर्दश” या० स्मृतौ विद्यास्थानत्वोक्तेस्तासां तथात्वम्।<ref name=":22222" /> (Yagn. Smrt. 1.3)</blockquote><blockquote>purāṇanyāyamīmāṃsādharmmaśāstrāṅgamiśritāḥ। vedāḥ sthānāni vidyānāṃ dharmmasya ca caturdaśa" yā. smṛtau vidyāsthānatvoktestāsāṃ tathātvam। (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote>Summary: Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Dharmashastras combined with vedangas, and vedas form the 14 vidyastanas as given in '''Yagnavalkya Smriti'''.

Puranas such as '''Vayu Purana (1.69.78)'''<ref>Vayu Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC%E0%A5%A7 Purvardha Adhyaya 61])</ref> '''Vishnudharmottara Purana (1.74.32)'''<ref>Vishnudharmottara Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD%E0%A5%AA Khanda 1, Adhyaya 74])</ref> refer to these abodes of knowledge as 14 vidyas as does the '''Mahabharata (Shanti Parva 12.122.31 and Asvamedhika Parva 14.116.15)''' given in the famous sloka below<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः । पुराणं धमर्शास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुदर्श ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ । purāṇaṃ dhamarśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścatudarśa ॥</blockquote>
===अष्टादशविद्याः ॥ Ashtadasha Vidyas===
However, '''Vishnupurana'''<ref name=":12">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref> enumerates the existence of 18 vidyasthanas by adding [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]], [[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]], [[Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः)]] and [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]] (four Upavedas) to the previously explained 14 vidyasthanas as given in the following shlokas.<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः। पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुर्दश ॥ २८ ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ। purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścaturdaśa ॥ 28 ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेत्यनुक्रमात् । अर्थशास्त्रं परं तस्मात् विद्या ह्यष्टादश स्मृताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvedo dhanurvedo gāndharvaścetyanukramāt । arthaśāstraṃ paraṃ tasmāt vidyā hyaṣṭādaśa smṛtāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>'''Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1.2.6)'''<ref>Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1 [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5)/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 2])</ref> also describes the 14 Vidyas and 18 vidyas as given above.
==विद्यायाः प्रयोजनम् ॥ Goals of Vidya==
Manusmrti (6.92) defines ten lakshanas of Dharma, the eighth of which is Vidya. Thus to achieve the [[Dharmika Jivana Vidhana (धार्मिकजीवनविधानम्)|dharmika jivana vidhana]] one has to undergo the process of acquiring vidya or education.

The goal of Vidya is to impress and develop a dharmika mindset right from the young age, at the laukika (worldy) level, which can be achieved by the study of Apara Vidya. Vidya is that which
* interests and orients one towards Dharma and Sadachara (appropriate code of behaviour)
* dispels the enmity and animosity by connecting with the underlying all pervading universal life force
* helps one to discover the unity among the diversity of beings (including mankind)
* leads one on the path of infinite bliss
Thus, purified and prepared a student according to his choice seeks attainment of knowledge of Self by the practice of Para Vidya. In the 10th Adhyaya of Bhagavadgita (10.32) Shri Krishna identifies Himself with Adhyatmavidya (the ultimate form of knowledge) as follows <blockquote>अध्यात्मविद्या विद्यानां । Vidyanam, among knowledges; I am the adhyatma-vidya<ref>Bhagavadgita ([https://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/srimad?language=dv&field_chapter_value=10&field_nsutra_value=32&choose=1 Adhyaya 10])</ref></blockquote>Knowledge of the Self, is the highest and ultimate knowledge because of its leading to Moksha.
With this significant background about the ancient education system of India, we now look into that unique Guru-shisya parampara maintained by the Gurukula system of education, which has shaped Bharat's young minds from ages and the need to continue the system even in the present day. In the following section we reflect on the how the Prachina Shikshana Vidhana or Ancient Education System evolved with defined goals and principles in line with Sanatana Dharma.

== Aspects of Educational System ==
In this section we deal with the various aspects of the ancient educational system, who constituted the chief roles, what were the samskaras involved and what was the method of education in this system.

=== Preceptors of Vidya ===
The central figure around which the ancient society rested on was the [[Acharya (आचार्यः)]], called variously as preceptor, a teacher, lecturer, professor or instructor in the present days.

Sanatana Dharma has held a high regard for the mother (janani), who is the first preceptor of a child followed by the father and the seers who imparted knowledge and were founders of a lineage of students. Whether living in recluse in forests or in cities or Gurukulas, shaping the future generations had always rested on the shoulders of Gurus and Acharyas.<blockquote>उपाध्यायान्दशाचार्य आचार्याणां शतं पिता । सहस्रं तु पितॄन्माता गौरवेणातिरिच्यते । । २.१४५ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.145)<ref name=":1">Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>upādhyāyāndaśācārya ācāryāṇāṁ śataṁ pitā । sahasraṁ tu pitr̥̄nmātā gauraveṇātiricyate । । 2.145 । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.145)</blockquote>An Acharya is ten times greater than Upadhyaya, the father is ten times greater than Acharya; but the mother is a thousand times more venerable than the father.

=== Receptors of Vidya ===
Next important aspect about education pertains to the receptors of vidya, the students, who are the bearers of future. The recipient of education from a Guru or Acharya is called a shishya, an antevasi a chatra etc. Studentship is the main activity of a young child initiated into the [[Brahmacharyashrama (ब्रह्मचर्याश्रमः)|Brahmacharyashrama]] marked by the [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]] samskara. It is the first ashrama of the four ashramas which a person goes through in his life and he is called a Brahmachari.

A child was required to have certain qualities to become a good student. Ancient seers emphasized on the importance of habits, routine, imitation and association to secure ready cooperation of the shishya towards education. At a young impressionable age a child can be moulded to develop the required [[Vidyarthi's Qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि)|vidyarthi's qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि)]] and such habits constitute a second nature in adulthood.
==== अन्तेवासी ॥ Antevasi ====
Vachaspatyam defines Antevasi as अन्ते निकटे विद्याग्रहणाय वसति। ante nikaṭe vidyāgrahaṇāya vasati। <ref>Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA See अन्तेवासिन्]) </ref> one who resides at near the Guru for learning Vidya.

According to Amarakosha a Shishya (शिष्यः) and Chatra (छात्रः) are synonyms for Antevasi (छात्रान्तेवासिशिष्यान्तेषद एकार्थता इमे ॥ as per Jatadhara).<ref name=":9">Shabdakalpadruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE See Shishya (शिष्यः)])</ref>

While the above terms refer to a current student, a graduated student is called a snataka.
==== स्नातकः ॥ Snataka ====
Vachaspatyam refers to snataka as follows
: वेदाध्ययनानन्तरं गार्हस्थ्याय कृतसमावर्त्तनांङ्गस्नाने गृहस्थभेदे तच्च व्रतं मिता। vedādhyayanānantaraṁ gārhasthyāya kr̥tasamāvarttanāṁṅgasnāne gr̥hasthabhede tacca vrataṁ mitā। <ref>Vachaspatyam ( [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95 See Snataka (स्नातक)])</ref>
[[Snataka (स्नातकः)|Snataka]] refers to one who, after having completed the study of Vedas, for entering the Grhasthashrama, has performed the rite of Samavartana which is an abulation that indicates the graduation from brahmacharya.

By the end of his studies a [[Snataka Gunas (स्नातकगुणाः)|snataka develops important qualities]] and is bound by the [[Snataka Dharma (स्नातकधर्मः)|snataka dharma]] which includes a certain set of rules and responsibilities for a student who has undergone samavartana.

=== Samskaras related to Vidya ===
Samskaras related to education are those activities prescribed by the vaidika and dharmika texts to prepare a young mind to receive the vast knowledge and perform the required vaidika rites.

==== अक्षराभ्यासः ॥ Aksharabhyasa or Vidyarambha ====
Also called as Aksharavishkarana (अक्षराविष्करणम्), was performed at the commencement of the primary education. Fifth year was prescribed but if postponed it had to be performed before upanayana samskara. Though not mentioned in the Grhya sutras under the Shodasa samskaras, this ritual is mentioned in the recent dharmashastras according to some scholars but not attached with importance as the Upanayana.<ref name=":0" /> Grhyasutras and Dharmasutras have laid down rituals for occasions like Annaprasana (first instance of food given to child) and grihya-nishkramana (first outing of the child) but failed to mention the commencement of education prior to Upanayana samskara. It may be attributed to the reason that writing of alphabet was not prevalent as commencement of vedic education involved memorization of mantras as against writing.

The activity of Aksharabhyasa is fairly simple, requiring the young boy or girl to worship Sarasvati Devi, the devata for learning, Vinayaka, devata for removing obstacles and the deities of the family. The father or purohit makes the child write the name of deity (usually Shiva for auspiciousness) on rice with his finger (golden or silver pen in some instances). Suitable danas are made to the purohit and the Brahmanas invited for the ceremony which marks the end of the ceremony.

==== उपनयनम् ॥ Upanayana ====
One of the important Samskaras, [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]] signifies the transition of a child to a student. It literally means taking the student to a teacher in order to hand him over to the latter for his education. This samskara was performed at the time a student commenced his vaidika vidya under the guidance of an Acharya with whom he is to live until his education is complete. The first guru of a child is the mother followed by the father who teaches him worldly knowledge until a long time. Usually for higher knowledge children were sent to learn from a scholarly person. Smritis give a detailed set of rules about the different aspects of Upanayana for different varnas. Gradually as vedic studies fell into the background, Upanayana samskara has gone out of vogue among the Kshatriya and Vaishya communities and remained only for the Brahmanas.

This samskara has quite a few aspects associated with it such as the age at which it is performed, the auspicious day, the kaupina, girdle or mekhala, the deer skin, the staff, the yajnopaveeta, the Savitri mantras to be recited, samidhadhana (the process of offering samidh into the fire) sandhayavandana each having special significance. The ceremonial bhiksha (begging alms) was a practice that commenced on the day of the Upanayana. The rites are performed for three days during which time the student is said to remain in an embryonic condition, on the fourth day he is said to have taken his adhyatmik birth, and so is called a Dvija henceforth. Medhajanana ritual performed by the preceptor marks the termination of the 3 day long ceremony.

==== समावर्तनम् ॥ Samavartana ====
[[Samavartana (समावर्तनम्)|Samavartana]], which means "returning" was performed at the end of the Brahmacharya period to mark the termination of the educational course when the student returns to his house from the teacher's home.

==== उपाकर्म ॥ Upakarma ====
The annual session of education in ancient times began soon after the commencement of the rainy season when the sowing operations were over and crops had began to sprout. By the full moon of month of Sravana (August) the sowing activity would be over and the ritual of Chhandasam [[Upakarma (उपाकर्म)|Upakarma]] (छान्दसाम् उपाकर्म), i.e., gathering the vedic knowledge, was performed on that day. This commencement ritual was mostly for the students and teachers in earlier times. However in the present day, it is being followed by all dvija brahmacharis and grhasthas (who have undergone Upanayana samskara, married or unmarried).<ref name=":0" />

=== विद्याभ्यासे विषयाः ॥ Subjects of Study ===
The history of ancient Indian education spans several millennia and thus we find considerable changes in the curricula in the course of centuries. When the outlook on life changes or when new branches of knowledge are developed, schools and colleges scramble to incorporate those changes.

==== वैदिकविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject Matter of Vaidika Vidya ====
During the vedic era naturally study of vedas formed the main topic of study. Stress was given on pronunciation and intonation of mantras, which required the student to hear and repeat what was said. Learning principles of chandas were encouraged so as to develop the powers of uttering the mantras. Those who took up priestly activities (paurohitya) had to study and commit to memory details of the various rituals and associated mantras. To prepare yajnavedis they had to learn rudimentary geometry at least. To find the appropriate muhuratas, planetary placement, seasons etc they had to learn Astronomy. Grammar was not given high importance, thus we find Vaidika Bhasha vyakarana was lot more flexible than the present day Laukika bhasha vyakarana.<ref name=":0" />

In the later vedic period, with the Brahmana literature becoming extensive and explanatory in nature, new subjects started developing. Vedic language and mantras were being differentiated and to preserve the pristine form of the mantras, scholars insisted that vedic mantras should be committed to memory in their precise traditional intonation and accents. Students were not at liberty to change a difficult archaic word for a simpler newer word. Education which mainly included the study of vedas gradually expanded to include the explanatory sciences also.

==== अपराविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject Matter of Apara Vidya ====
Chaturdasha Vidyastanas which included the Vedas and their Vedangas were the chief subjects after the Vedic period for a long time. Vidya (knowledge), pertaining to a single knowledge system (Brahmavidya etc) of the olden days gradually got absorbed into Vedanta system, a broader heading covering all such specialized topics. Gradually as studying vedas required more understanding, the study of Shad Vedangas became important. It is to be noted that the subjects explaining the Vedas themselves gained more significance and subsequently were studied independent of the Vedas themselves. Some of the Vedangas such as Shiksha, [[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]], [[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotisha]], became highly specialized by themselves and needed years of study excluding the Vedic studies.

Vidya (education) then came to represent concept based knowledge systems of Shastras of all kinds in the more recent millenia. The [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Shad Vedangas]], [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]] and [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|Upavedas]] gave rise to many subjects such as Ganita (Mathematics), Nyaya (Judicial system) and Nyaya (Logic). [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]] ramified into specializations such as Shastrachikitsa (Surgery) and Kayachikitsa (General Medicine), [[Rasayana shastra (रसायनशास्त्रम्)]] dealt with chemistry, Bhoutika shastra included physics. The knowledge of alloys, metallurgy, geology, botany sciences, warfare, architecture, large scale constructions, all such topics developed over a period of time into professional subjects.

==== वेदान्तविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject Matter of Vedanta Vidya ====
A considerable portion of the major Upanishads is devoted to the Upasanas or meditative exercises which are called Vidyas. A good number of these Vidyas in the sense of in-depth higher level of learning are discussed in all the 12 Mukhya Upanishads (three of them more important Upanishads namely, Chandogya, Brhdaranyaka and Taittriya Upanishads) and in the Vedanta Sutras or Brahmasutras. The Upanishads mention them in different places while in the Vedanta Sutras, Adhyaya 3, Pada 3 takes them up together and discusses them. Practice of these Vidyas have been seen in relation to yajnas and some of them yield Kamyaphala (fruits of yajna) as have been given in Sutra 3.3.60. Hence some of these Vidyas are also called Kamya Vidyas. Shri Adi Shankaracharya in his bhasyas interprets these Vidyas as practical exercises of meditation. Also called as Brahmavidya, 32 such Vidyas have been given.<ref>Aiyar, Narayanaswami K., (1919 First Edition) ''The Thirty-two Vidyas. Madras:'' The Adyar Library and Research Center</ref>

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 800px; font-style: italic;|
* [[Ishvaravidya (ईश्वरविद्या)]]
* [[Paramapurushavidya (परमपुरुशविद्या)]]
* [[Sad Vidya (सद्विद्या)]]
* [[Anandamaya Vidya (आनन्दमयविद्या)]]
* [[Paramajyoti Vidya ()]]
* [[Sandilya Vidya]]
* [[Paryanka Vidya]]
* [[Uddalaka Vidya]]
* [[Aksaraksara Vidya]]
* [[Bhumavidya (भूमविद्या)]]
* [[Gargi Akshara Vidya]]
* [[Satyakama Vidya]]
* [[Daharavidya (दहरविद्या)]]
* [[Angushtamatra Vidya]]
* [[Jyotishamjyoti Vidya]]
* [[Maitreyi Vidya]]
* [[Gayatri Vidya]]
* [[Ushasti Kahola Vidya]]
* [[Antaradityavidya or Adityavidya (आदित्यविद्या)]]
* [[Upakosala Vidya]]
* [[Madhuvidya (मधुविद्या)]]
* [[BalakiVidya ()]]
* [[Akash Vidya (अक्षिविद्या)]]
* [[Pranavidya (प्राणविद्या)]]
* [[Pratardanavidya (प्रतर्दनविद्या) ]]
* [[Nachiketavidya (नचिकेतविद्या)]]
* [[Vaisvanara Vidya]]
* [[Samvarga Vidya]]
* [[Panchagnividya (पञ्चाग्निविद्या)]]
* [[Akshi Vidya]]
* [[Bhrugu Varuni Vidya]]
* [[Srimannyasa Vidya]]}}
Udgita and Purushavidya (पुरुषविद्या) are two others that have been described.
=== Terms Related to Study ===
Vidya involves the study of the subject matter by the student. If the subject matter is Vedic study it is specifically called Svadhyaya (स्वाध्यायम्), while study of any subject in general is termed as Adhyayana. Reading is Pathana (पठनम्) and repeating a mantra is termed as Japa (जपम्). Japa particularly relates to mantras and does not apply to subject matter.

==== स्वाध्यायम् ॥ Svadhyaya ====
The students of ancient days had to recite the lessons already learned either to themselves or to senior pupils and this was called their Svadhyaya. This promoted their ability to retain and recollect the studied veda mantras.<ref name=":7">Ray, Brojasundar (1938) ''Aims and Ideals of Ancient Indian Culture.'' Calcutta: A. Roy and Co.</ref> One cannot but remember the [[Samavartana (समावर्तनम्)|Samavartana]] address to the outgoing students mentioned in Taittriyopanishad, Shikshavalli which emphasizes the importance of svadhyaya. <blockquote>सत्यं वद , धर्मं चर, स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः ।... ... (Tait. Upan. Shiks. 11.1)<ref>Taittriya Upanishad [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4% (Shiksha Valli Anuvaka 11])</ref> Make no mistake about the study of the Veda..</blockquote>In ancient times (and to a limited extent even today), different families studied a specific set of texts from the entire set of vedic literature. For example, a family belonging to the Deshastha Brahmana community in Maharashtra (India) could chant a specific group of 10 texts related to the Rigveda (the Rigveda Samhita, Aitareya Brahmaṇa, Aitareya Araṇyaka, Aitareya Upanishad, Ashvalayana Shrauta Sūtra, Ashvalayana Grhya Sutra, Panini’s Așhtadhyayi, Pingala’s Chandas sutras, Yaska’s Nirukta and Katyayana’s Sarvanukramani) during their lifelong study. This same set of texts were studied by the members of the family as their primary focus generation after generation and constituted their traditional vedic study or Svadhyaya. In this form of study the focus is on the recitation of the veda mantras and is not necessarily on their meaning.<ref name=":3">Sacred HIndu Scriptures and Languages - an Introduction by Vishal Agarwal ([https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=forums&srcid=MTQyNTE0MTcxODQxNzMxMDM3MDQBMDcxOTk5MzkzMTE3Mjc4NjMzNjIBWGJGZ25zZjRCUUFKATAuMQEBdjI&authuser=0 Page 4])</ref>

Taittriya Aranyakam lays down the adyayanavidhi of Svadhyaya which has been explained in Mahabhashyam (of Patanjali) as a vidhi that should be followed at all costs.<blockquote>नित्यो हि `स्वाध्यायोऽध्येतव्यः' इत्यध्ययनविधिः। यस्माद् ब्राह्मणेन निष्कारणो धर्मः षडङ्गो वेदोऽध्येयः, तदर्थश्च ज्ञातव्य: (तैत्तिरीय-आरण्यकम्, २.१५)(Mahabhashyam 3.1.3)<ref>Mahabhashyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Paspashnikam])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>nityo hi `svādhyāyo'dhyetavyaḥ' ityadhyayanavidhiḥ। yasmād brāhmaṇena niṣkāraṇo dharmaḥ ṣaḍaṅgo vedo'dhyeyaḥ, tadarthaśca jñātavya:’ (taittirīya-āraṇyakam, 2.15)(Mahabhashyam 3.1.3)</blockquote>A brahmana should without questioning the reason should learn the Dharmas, the Shadangas (vedangas) and the vedas and know their meaning. Svadhyaya is a nityakarma. The phala or result of studying svadhyaya is also given in the same anuvaka as follows <blockquote>स्वाध्यायमधीते सर्वाँल्लोकाञ्जयति सर्वाल्लोकाननृणोऽनुसंचरति तदेषाऽभ्युक्ता, इति । (Tait. Aran. 2.15)<ref>Taittriya Aranyaka ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A Prapathaka 2 Anuvaka 15]) </ref></blockquote><blockquote>svādhyāyamadhīte sarvām̐llokāñjayati sarvāllokānanr̥ṇo'nusaṁcarati tadeṣā'bhyuktā, iti । (Tait. Aran. 2.15)</blockquote>One who studies svadhyaya will acquire (surpass) all the worlds, will be free of all rnas (debts such as pitru rna, matr rna etc) and can freely move across all lokas, this is clearly stated (as the phala).

==== अध्ययनम् ॥ Adhyayana ====
It includes the study of texts in general to imbibe their teachings, and reflect upon their meaning. There may or may not be any chanting involved. The student may study them privately, or under the guidance of a Guru.<ref name=":3" />

==== पठनम् ॥ Pathana ====
Pathana generally means to read and here the context is to recite aloud, to learn by repeating the mantras etc.

Students were doing Pathana before manuscripts were accessible to one and all. After they came into usage, they were also scarce and available to, say, senior students having access to the library. [[Vedapatha Paddhati (वेदपाठपद्धतिः)|Vedapatha paddhati]] is the way the recitation of vedas is to be done by the student. There are as many as 8 different ways in which mantras are recited and memorized in olden days. This culture is gradually losing ground in the present days.

One can see that there were different methods of education employed which led to the preservation of a vast body of knowledge, the Vedas and shastras.

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Education Series]]

Vidya (विद्या)

2020-07-23T07:46:09Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vidya (Samskrit : विद्या), a word, devoid of an English equivalent, and loosely translated as Learning or Education was regarded as the best agency for improving society at all times and hence focus was that it should be available to all those who are qualified to receive it. Upanayana was the samskara, that was usually performed, to mark the initiation of a child (of all varnas and both genders) into education.<ref name=":0" /> It was further declared in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad that<blockquote>... विद्यया देवलोको देवलोको वै लोकाना श्रेष्ठस् तस्माद्विद्यां प्रशसन्ति ॥ यद्वै किञ्चानूक्तम् तस्य सर्वस्य ब्रह्मेत्येकता .... तस्मात् पुत्रमनुशिष्टं लोक्यमाहुस् तस्मादेनमनुशासति । (Brha. Upan. 1.5.16 and 17)<ref>Brhdaranayaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1 Brahmana 5])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>... vidyayā devaloko devaloko vai lokānā śreṣṭhas tasmādvidyāṁ praśasanti ॥ yadvai kiñcānūktam tasya sarvasya brahmetyekatā .... tasmāt putramanuśiṣṭaṁ lokyamāhus tasmādenamanuśāsati ।</blockquote>One can attain the devaloka through vidya alone; devaloka being the best of the (three) worlds. Hence vidya is to be praised. (Here vidya is taken to mean meditation or that knowledge of Self required for attaining the higher worlds). Whatever is studied is all unified in the word Brahman.... Therefore they speak of an educated son as being conducive to the world. Hence (a father) teaches his son (Page No 230 of Reference <ref name=":10">Swami Madhavananda. (1950 Third Edition) ''Brhadaranyaka Upanishad with the commentry of Shankaracharya. Mayavati'' : Advaita Ashrama</ref>).

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
While the goal of education is attainment of knowledge of the Self, students were primarily taught the Vedas and associated Vaidika Vangmaya as the stepping stones to learn and practice the Purusharthas, [[Trivarga (त्रिवर्गः)|Trivarga]] - Dharma, Artha and Kama which was then used to attain the fourth one, namely, Moksha. Hence people of different varnas irrespective of their gender, social and financial status, received at least the rudiment of literary, philosophical, theological, social and professional education, until the first millennium of the Christian era when conducting upanayanas decreased among the varnas and girls were married at the age of 10 owing to several causes.<ref name=":0">Altekar, A. S. (1944) ''Education in Ancient India.'' Benares : Nand Kishore and Bros.,</ref>
==Classification of Vidya==
The Mundakopanishad refers to two levels of learning in Saunaka Angirasa Samvada, as given below <blockquote>द्वे विद्ये वेदितव्ये इति ह स्म, यद्ब्रह्मविदो वदन्ति परा चैवापरा च ॥ ४ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>dve vidye veditavye iti ha sma, yadbrahmavido vadanti parā caivāparā ca ॥ 4 ॥</blockquote><blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः, शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । अथ परा यया तदक्षरमधिगम्यते ॥ ५ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.4-5)<ref>Mundaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundaka 1 Khanda 1])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvedo yajurvedaḥ sāmavedo'tharvavedaḥ, śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chando jyotiṣamiti । atha parā yayā tadakṣaramadhigamyate ॥ 5 ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.4-5)</blockquote>Summary : There are two kinds of knowledge to be acquired as per tradition, which according to the knowers of Vedas, those who realised the supreme Truth, is - the higher, knowledge of the Supreme Self (Para Vidya) and the lower, knowledge of virtue and vice and their means and ends (Apara Vidya). Of these the lower (knowledge) comprises the Rigveda, Yajur veda, Sama veda, Atharva veda, Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotisha (texts dealing with pronunciation, code of yajnas, grammar, etymology, meter and astronomy). Then there is the higher (Para knowledge) by which is attained that Aksharam or Immutable Brahman.<ref name=":8">Swami Gambhirananda (1937) ''Eight Upanishads, Volume 2 (Aitareya, Mundaka, Mandukya and Karika and Prasna)'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>

Thus we have a broad classification of Vidya as
# '''पराविद्या ॥ Para Vidya''' - higher knowledge for Self Realization
# '''अपराविद्या ॥ Apara Vidya''' - lower knowledge required for life
The word Vidya (विद्या), devoid of an English equivalent and loosely translated as Education, deals with that procedural knowledge essential for understanding the worldly social, philosophical and theological aspects of Sanatana Dharma. Ancient seers had holistic perspective as to why a student should be given the higher knowledge of Self in different forms such as [[Brahmavidya (ब्रह्मविद्या)|Brahmavidya]], [[Bhumavidya (भूमविद्या)|Bhumavidya]], [[Panchagnividya (पञ्चाग्निविद्या)|Panchagnividya]], each of which was one way to achieve the common goal of Moksha. It may appear that preceptors of the ancient ages have focused only on the ultimate adhyatmik goal of Atmavidya (attainment of the knowledge of the the Self) which is more a personal goal for the student. The knowledge of the Brahman is distinctively mentioned and it is called the higher knowledge since, even after the mastery of the assemblage of words, the realisation of the Self is not possible without other efforts consisting of approaching the teacher and so on, as well as detachment. Unlike the Agnihotra and other yajnas which require the performance of an action subsequent to the understanding of the text, through a combination of numerous accessories, the domain of higher knowledge does not require actions, nothing remains to be performed.<ref name=":8" />
== व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology ==
According to Shabdakalpadhruma, Vidya (विद्या) originates from the dhatu विदँ used in the meaning of Jnana (ज्ञाने).<ref>Shabdakalpadhruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Word विगानं])</ref>

तत्तु मोक्षे धीः । इति जटाधरः ॥ That which is the knowledge of Moksha - as defined by Jatadhara. <blockquote>परमोत्तमपुरुषार्थसाधनीभूता विद्या ब्रह्मज्ञानरूपा । इति नागोजीभट्टः ॥</blockquote><blockquote>paramottamapuruṣārthasādhanībhūtā vidyā brahmajñānarūpā । iti nāgojībhaṭṭaḥ ॥</blockquote>Vidya is that form of Brahmajnana which is the instrument to achieve Paramottama Purushartha namely Moksha as per Nagoji Bhatta.

By the word Vidya is implied the realization of the thing to be known.

In this article we reflect upon the syllabus of ancient shikshana vidhana (education system) which consisted of imparting Apara Vidya of worldly knowledge. Vidya was said to be complete with the adhyayana of Chaturdasha Vidyas (and Astadasha Vidyas) dealt in our [[Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)|Vaidika Vangmaya]] imparted by Gurus to students before putting them on the path of seeking Para Vidya.
==विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>[https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/843c92_f50e98e77cd64367905b97f1156025af.pdf http://tiny.cc/9vplhzf]</ref> as they give comprehensive knowledge of all the four Purusharthas namely, Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, the first three pertaining to worldly knowledge. These include the
* Chaturvedas - [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The Four Vedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda)
* Vedangas - The Six [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]] (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotisha)
* Upangas - (Puranas, Nyaya shastra (and Vaiseshika), Mimamsa and Dharmashastra).<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
===चतुर्दशविद्याः ॥ Chaturdasha Vidyas===
Agni Purana, one of the oldest Puranas, gives the following information about the constituents Para and Apara Vidyas.<blockquote>ऋग्यजुःसामाश्चर्वाख्या विद्या विष्णुर्जगज्जनिः । छन्दः शिक्षा व्याकरणं निधण्टुज्योतिराख्यकाः ।। ३८३.२ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>r̥gyajuḥsāmāścarvākhyā vidyā viṣṇurjagajjaniḥ । chandaḥ śikṣā vyākaraṇaṁ nidhaṇṭujyotirākhyakāḥ ।। 383.2 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>निरुक्तधर्मशास्त्रादि मीमांसान्यायविस्तराः । आयुर्वेदपुराणाख्या धनुर्गन्धर्वविस्तराः ।। ३८३.३ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>niruktadharmaśāstrādi mīmāṁsānyāyavistarāḥ । āyurvedapurāṇākhyā dhanurgandharvavistarāḥ ।। 383.3 ।।</blockquote><blockquote>विद्या सैवार्थसास्त्राख्या वेदान्ताऽन्या हरिर्महान् । इत्येषा चापरा विद्या परविद्याऽक्षरं ।। ३८३.४ ।। (Agni. Pura. 383.2-4)<ref>Agni Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 383] AgniPurana Mahatmyam)</ref></blockquote><blockquote>vidyā saivārthasāstrākhyā vedāntā'nyā harirmahān । ityeṣā cāparā vidyā paravidyā'kṣaraṁ ।। 383.4 ।। (Agni. Pura. 383.2-4)</blockquote>According to Vachaspatya, '''Nandi Purana''' gives the 14 vidyasthanas as follows<blockquote>वेदादिषु चतुर्दशसु विद्यासु। ताश्च विद्याश्चतुर्दश प्रोक्ताः क्रमेण तु यथास्थिति। षडङ्गमिश्रितावेदा धर्म्मशास्त्रं पुराणकम्। मीमांमातर्कमपि च एता विद्याश्चतुर्दश | नन्दि पु०।<ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>vedādiṣu caturdaśasu vidyāsu। tāśca vidyāścaturdaśa proktāḥ krameṇa tu yathāsthiti। ṣaḍaṅgamiśritāvedā dharmmaśāstraṃ purāṇakam। mīmāṃmātarkamapi ca etā vidyāścaturdaśa| nandi pu।</blockquote>Meaning : Fourteen vidyas are given as - vedas with their 6 angas (अङ्ग-s), dharmashastra, purana, mimamsa (मीमांसा) with tarka (तर्कः).

According to '''Vachaspatya''',<blockquote>पुराणन्यायमीमांसाधर्म्मशास्त्राङ्गमिश्रिताः। वेदाः स्थानानि विद्यानां धर्म्मस्य च चतुर्दश” या० स्मृतौ विद्यास्थानत्वोक्तेस्तासां तथात्वम्।<ref name=":22222" /> (Yagn. Smrt. 1.3)</blockquote><blockquote>purāṇanyāyamīmāṃsādharmmaśāstrāṅgamiśritāḥ। vedāḥ sthānāni vidyānāṃ dharmmasya ca caturdaśa" yā. smṛtau vidyāsthānatvoktestāsāṃ tathātvam। (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote>Summary: Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Dharmashastras combined with vedangas, and vedas form the 14 vidyastanas as given in '''Yagnavalkya Smriti'''.

Puranas such as '''Vayu Purana (1.69.78)'''<ref>Vayu Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC%E0%A5%A7 Purvardha Adhyaya 61])</ref> '''Vishnudharmottara Purana (1.74.32)'''<ref>Vishnudharmottara Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD%E0%A5%AA Khanda 1, Adhyaya 74])</ref> refer to these abodes of knowledge as 14 vidyas as does the '''Mahabharata (Shanti Parva 12.122.31 and Asvamedhika Parva 14.116.15)''' given in the famous sloka below<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः । पुराणं धमर्शास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुदर्श ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ । purāṇaṃ dhamarśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścatudarśa ॥</blockquote>
===अष्टादशविद्याः ॥ Ashtadasha Vidyas===
However, '''Vishnupurana'''<ref name=":12">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref> enumerates the existence of 18 vidyasthanas by adding [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]], [[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]], [[Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः)]] and [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]] (four Upavedas) to the previously explained 14 vidyasthanas as given in the following shlokas.<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः। पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुर्दश ॥ २८ ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ। purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścaturdaśa ॥ 28 ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेत्यनुक्रमात् । अर्थशास्त्रं परं तस्मात् विद्या ह्यष्टादश स्मृताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvedo dhanurvedo gāndharvaścetyanukramāt । arthaśāstraṃ paraṃ tasmāt vidyā hyaṣṭādaśa smṛtāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>'''Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1.2.6)'''<ref>Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1 [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5)/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 2])</ref> also describes the 14 Vidyas and 18 vidyas as given above.
==विद्यायाः प्रयोजनम् ॥ Goals of Vidya==
Manusmrti (6.92) defines ten lakshanas of Dharma, the eighth of which is Vidya. Thus to achieve the [[Dharmika Jivana Vidhana (धार्मिकजीवनविधानम्)|dharmika jivana vidhana]] one has to undergo the process of acquiring vidya or education.

The goal of Vidya is to impress and develop a dharmika mindset right from the young age, at the laukika (worldy) level, which can be achieved by the study of Apara Vidya. Vidya is that which
* interests and orients one towards Dharma and Sadachara (appropriate code of behaviour)
* dispels the enmity and animosity by connecting with the underlying all pervading universal life force
* helps one to discover the unity among the diversity of beings (including mankind)
* leads one on the path of infinite bliss
Thus, purified and prepared a student according to his choice seeks attainment of knowledge of Self by the practice of Para Vidya. In the 10th Adhyaya of Bhagavadgita (10.32) Shri Krishna identifies Himself with Adhyatmavidya (the ultimate form of knowledge) as follows <blockquote>अध्यात्मविद्या विद्यानां । Vidyanam, among knowledges; I am the adhyatma-vidya<ref>Bhagavadgita ([https://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/srimad?language=dv&field_chapter_value=10&field_nsutra_value=32&choose=1 Adhyaya 10])</ref></blockquote>Knowledge of the Self, is the highest and ultimate knowledge because of its leading to Moksha.
With this significant background about the ancient education system of India, we now look into that unique Guru-shisya parampara maintained by the Gurukula system of education, which has shaped Bharat's young minds from ages and the need to continue the system even in the present day. In the following section we reflect on the how the Prachina Shikshana Vidhana or Ancient Education System evolved with defined goals and principles in line with Sanatana Dharma.

== Aspects of Educational System ==
In this section we deal with the various aspects of the ancient educational system, who constituted the chief roles, what were the samskaras involved and what was the method of education in this system.

=== Preceptors of Vidya ===
The central figure around which the ancient society rested on was the [[Acharya (आचार्यः)]], called variously as preceptor, a teacher, lecturer, professor or instructor in the present days.

Sanatana Dharma has held a high regard for the mother (janani), who is the first preceptor of a child followed by the father and the seers who imparted knowledge and were founders of a lineage of students. Whether living in recluse in forests or in cities or Gurukulas, shaping the future generations had always rested on the shoulders of Gurus and Acharyas.<blockquote>उपाध्यायान्दशाचार्य आचार्याणां शतं पिता । सहस्रं तु पितॄन्माता गौरवेणातिरिच्यते । । २.१४५ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.145)<ref name=":1">Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>upādhyāyāndaśācārya ācāryāṇāṁ śataṁ pitā । sahasraṁ tu pitr̥̄nmātā gauraveṇātiricyate । । 2.145 । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.145)</blockquote>An Acharya is ten times greater than Upadhyaya, the father is ten times greater than Acharya; but the mother is a thousand times more venerable than the father.

=== Receptors of Vidya ===
Next important aspect about education pertains to the receptors of vidya, the students, who are the bearers of future. The recipient of education from a Guru or Acharya is called a shishya, an antevasi a chatra etc. Studentship is the main activity of a young child initiated into the [[Brahmacharyashrama (ब्रह्मचर्याश्रमः)|Brahmacharyashrama]] marked by the [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]] samskara. It is the first ashrama of the four ashramas which a person goes through in his life and he is called a Brahmachari.

A child was required to have certain qualities to become a good student. Ancient seers emphasized on the importance of habits, routine, imitation and association to secure ready cooperation of the shishya towards education. At a young impressionable age a child can be moulded to develop the required [[Vidyarthi's Qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि)|vidyarthi's qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि)]] and such habits constitute a second nature in adulthood.
==== अन्तेवासी ॥ Antevasi ====
Vachaspatyam defines Antevasi as अन्ते निकटे विद्याग्रहणाय वसति। ante nikaṭe vidyāgrahaṇāya vasati। <ref>Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA See अन्तेवासिन्]) </ref> one who resides at near the Guru for learning Vidya.

According to Amarakosha a Shishya (शिष्यः) and Chatra (छात्रः) are synonyms for Antevasi (छात्रान्तेवासिशिष्यान्तेषद एकार्थता इमे ॥ as per Jatadhara).<ref name=":9">Shabdakalpadruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE See Shishya (शिष्यः)])</ref>

While the above terms refer to a current student, a graduated student is called a snataka.
==== स्नातकः ॥ Snataka ====
Vachaspatyam refers to snataka as follows
: वेदाध्ययनानन्तरं गार्हस्थ्याय कृतसमावर्त्तनांङ्गस्नाने गृहस्थभेदे तच्च व्रतं मिता। vedādhyayanānantaraṁ gārhasthyāya kr̥tasamāvarttanāṁṅgasnāne gr̥hasthabhede tacca vrataṁ mitā। <ref>Vachaspatyam ( [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95 See Snataka (स्नातक)])</ref>
[[Snataka (स्नातकः)|Snataka]] refers to one who, after having completed the study of Vedas, for entering the Grhasthashrama, has performed the rite of Samavartana which is an abulation that indicates the graduation from brahmacharya.

By the end of his studies a [[Snataka Gunas (स्नातकगुणाः)|snataka develops important qualities]] and is bound by the [[Snataka Dharma (स्नातकधर्मः)|snataka dharma]] which includes a certain set of rules and responsibilities for a student who has undergone samavartana.

=== Samskaras related to Vidya ===
Samskaras related to education are those activities prescribed by the vaidika and dharmika texts to prepare a young mind to receive the vast knowledge and perform the required vaidika rites.

==== अक्षराभ्यासः ॥ Aksharabhyasa or Vidyarambha ====
Also called as Aksharavishkarana (अक्षराविष्करणम्), was performed at the commencement of the primary education. Fifth year was prescribed but if postponed it had to be performed before upanayana samskara. Though not mentioned in the Grhya sutras under the Shodasa samskaras, this ritual is mentioned in the recent dharmashastras according to some scholars but not attached with importance as the Upanayana.<ref name=":0" /> Grhyasutras and Dharmasutras have laid down rituals for occasions like Annaprasana (first instance of food given to child) and grihya-nishkramana (first outing of the child) but failed to mention the commencement of education prior to Upanayana samskara. It may be attributed to the reason that writing of alphabet was not prevalent as commencement of vedic education involved memorization of mantras as against writing.

The activity of Aksharabhyasa is fairly simple, requiring the young boy or girl to worship Sarasvati Devi, the devata for learning, Vinayaka, devata for removing obstacles and the deities of the family. The father or purohit makes the child write the name of deity (usually Shiva for auspiciousness) on rice with his finger (golden or silver pen in some instances). Suitable danas are made to the purohit and the Brahmanas invited for the ceremony which marks the end of the ceremony.

==== उपनयनम् ॥ Upanayana ====
One of the important Samskaras, [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]] signifies the transition of a child to a student. It literally means taking the student to a teacher in order to hand him over to the latter for his education. This samskara was performed at the time a student commenced his vaidika vidya under the guidance of an Acharya with whom he is to live until his education is complete. The first guru of a child is the mother followed by the father who teaches him worldly knowledge until a long time. Usually for higher knowledge children were sent to learn from a scholarly person. Smritis give a detailed set of rules about the different aspects of Upanayana for different varnas. Gradually as vedic studies fell into the background, Upanayana samskara has gone out of vogue among the Kshatriya and Vaishya communities and remained only for the Brahmanas.

This samskara has quite a few aspects associated with it such as the age at which it is performed, the auspicious day, the kaupina, girdle or mekhala, the deer skin, the staff, the yajnopaveeta, the Savitri mantras to be recited, samidhadhana (the process of offering samidh into the fire) sandhayavandana each having special significance. The ceremonial bhiksha (begging alms) was a practice that commenced on the day of the Upanayana. The rites are performed for three days during which time the student is said to remain in an embryonic condition, on the fourth day he is said to have taken his adhyatmik birth, and so is called a Dvija henceforth. Medhajanana ritual performed by the preceptor marks the termination of the 3 day long ceremony.

==== समावर्तनम् ॥ Samavartana ====
[[Samavartana (समावर्तनम्)|Samavartana]], which means "returning" was performed at the end of the Brahmacharya period to mark the termination of the educational course when the student returns to his house from the teacher's home.

==== उपाकर्म ॥ Upakarma ====
The annual session of education in ancient times began soon after the commencement of the rainy season when the sowing operations were over and crops had began to sprout. By the full moon of month of Sravana (August) the sowing activity would be over and the ritual of Chhandasam [[Upakarma (उपाकर्म)|Upakarma]] (छान्दसाम् उपाकर्म), i.e., gathering the vedic knowledge, was performed on that day. This commencement ritual was mostly for the students and teachers in earlier times. However in the present day, it is being followed by all dvija brahmacharis and grhasthas (who have undergone Upanayana samskara, married or unmarried).<ref name=":0" />

=== विद्याभ्यासे विषयाः ॥ Subjects of Study ===
The history of ancient Indian education spans several millennia and thus we find considerable changes in the curricula in the course of centuries. When the outlook on life changes or when new branches of knowledge are developed, schools and colleges scramble to incorporate those changes.

==== वैदिकविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject Matter of Vaidika Vidya ====
During the vedic era naturally study of vedas formed the main topic of study. Stress was given on pronunciation and intonation of mantras, which required the student to hear and repeat what was said. Learning principles of chandas were encouraged so as to develop the powers of uttering the mantras. Those who took up priestly activities (paurohitya) had to study and commit to memory details of the various rituals and associated mantras. To prepare yajnavedis they had to learn rudimentary geometry at least. To find the appropriate muhuratas, planetary placement, seasons etc they had to learn Astronomy. Grammar was not given high importance, thus we find Vaidika Bhasha vyakarana was lot more flexible than the present day Laukika bhasha vyakarana.<ref name=":0" />

In the later vedic period, with the Brahmana literature becoming extensive and explanatory in nature, new subjects started developing. Vedic language and mantras were being differentiated and to preserve the pristine form of the mantras, scholars insisted that vedic mantras should be committed to memory in their precise traditional intonation and accents. Students were not at liberty to change a difficult archaic word for a simpler newer word. Education which mainly included the study of vedas gradually expanded to include the explanatory sciences also.

==== अपराविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject Matter of Apara Vidya ====
Chaturdasha Vidyastanas which included the Vedas and their Vedangas were the chief subjects after the Vedic period for a long time. Vidya (knowledge), pertaining to a single knowledge system (Brahmavidya etc) of the olden days gradually got absorbed into Vedanta system, a broader heading covering all such specialized topics. Gradually as studying vedas required more understanding, the study of Shad Vedangas became important. It is to be noted that the subjects explaining the Vedas themselves gained more significance and subsequently were studied independent of the Vedas themselves. Some of the Vedangas such as Shiksha, [[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]], [[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotisha]], became highly specialized by themselves and needed years of study excluding the Vedic studies.

Vidya (education) then came to represent concept based knowledge systems of Shastras of all kinds in the more recent millenia. The [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Shad Vedangas]], [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]] and [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|Upavedas]] gave rise to many subjects such as Ganita (Mathematics), Nyaya (Judicial system) and Nyaya (Logic). [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]] ramified into specializations such as Shastrachikitsa (Surgery) and Kayachikitsa (General Medicine), [[Rasayana shastra (रसायनशास्त्रम्)]] dealt with chemistry, Bhoutika shastra included physics. The knowledge of alloys, metallurgy, geology, botany sciences, warfare, architecture, large scale constructions, all such topics developed over a period of time into professional subjects.

==== वेदान्तविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject Matter of Vedanta Vidya ====
A considerable portion of the major Upanishads is devoted to the Upasanas or meditative exercises which are called Vidyas. A good number of these Vidyas in the sense of in-depth higher level of learning are discussed in all the 12 Mukhya Upanishads (three of them more important Upanishads namely, Chandogya, Brhdaranyaka and Taittriya Upanishads) and in the Vedanta Sutras or Brahmasutras. The Upanishads mention them in different places while in the Vedanta Sutras, Adhyaya 3, Pada 3 takes them up together and discusses them. Practice of these Vidyas have been seen in relation to yajnas and some of them yield Kamyaphala (fruits of yajna) as have been given in Sutra 3.3.60. Hence some of these Vidyas are also called Kamya Vidyas. Shri Adi Shankaracharya in his bhasyas interprets these Vidyas as practical exercises of meditation. Also called as Brahmavidya, 32 such Vidyas have been given.<ref>Aiyar, Narayanaswami K., (1919 First Edition) ''The Thirty-two Vidyas. Madras:'' The Adyar Library and Research Center</ref>

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 800px; font-style: italic;|
* [[Ishvaravidya (ईश्वरविद्या)]]
* [[Paramapurushavidya (परमपुरुशविद्या)]]
* [[Sad Vidya (सद्विद्या)]]
* [[Anandamaya Vidya (आनन्दमयविद्या)]]
* [[Paramajyoti Vidya ()]]
* [[Sandilya Vidya]]
* [[Paryanka Vidya]]
* [[Uddalaka Vidya]]
* [[Aksaraksara Vidya]]
* [[Bhumavidya (भूमविद्या)]]
* [[Gargi Akshara Vidya]]
* [[Satyakama Vidya]]
* [[Daharavidya (दहरविद्या)]]
* [[Angushtamatra Vidya]]
* [[Jyotishamjyoti Vidya]]
* [[Maitreyi Vidya]]
* [[Gayatri Vidya]]
* [[Ushasti Kahola Vidya]]
* [[Antaradityavidya or Adityavidya (आदित्यविद्या)]]
* [[Upakosala Vidya]]
* [[Madhuvidya (मधुविद्या)]]
* [[BalakiVidya ()]]
* [[Akash Vidya (अक्षिविद्या)]]
* [[Pranavidya (प्राणविद्या)]]
* [[Pratardanavidya (प्रतर्दनविद्या) ]]
* [[Nachiketavidya (नचिकेतविद्या)]]
* [[Vaisvanara Vidya]]
* [[Samvarga Vidya]]
* [[Panchagnividya (पञ्चाग्निविद्या)]]
* [[Akshi Vidya]]
* [[Bhrugu Varuni Vidya]]
* [[Srimannyasa Vidya]]}}
Udgita and Purushavidya (पुरुषविद्या) are two others that have been described.
=== Terms Related to Study ===
Vidya involves the study of the subject matter by the student. If the subject matter is Vedic study it is specifically called Svadhyaya (स्वाध्यायम्), while study of any subject in general is termed as Adhyayana. Reading is Pathana (पठनम्) and repeating a mantra is termed as Japa (जपम्). Japa particularly relates to mantras and does not apply to subject matter.

==== स्वाध्यायम् ॥ Svadhyaya ====
The students of ancient days had to recite the lessons already learned either to themselves or to senior pupils and this was called their Svadhyaya. This promoted their ability to retain and recollect the studied veda mantras.<ref name=":7">Ray, Brojasundar (1938) ''Aims and Ideals of Ancient Indian Culture.'' Calcutta: A. Roy and Co.</ref> One cannot but remember the [[Samavartana (समावर्तनम्)|Samavartana]] address to the outgoing students mentioned in Taittriyopanishad, Shikshavalli which emphasizes the importance of svadhyaya. <blockquote>सत्यं वद , धर्मं चर, स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः ।... ... (Tait. Upan. Shiks. 11.1)<ref>Taittriya Upanishad [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4% (Shiksha Valli Anuvaka 11])</ref> Make no mistake about the study of the Veda..</blockquote>In ancient times (and to a limited extent even today), different families studied a specific set of texts from the entire set of vedic literature. For example, a family belonging to the Deshastha Brahmana community in Maharashtra (India) could chant a specific group of 10 texts related to the Rigveda (the Rigveda Samhita, Aitareya Brahmaṇa, Aitareya Araṇyaka, Aitareya Upanishad, Ashvalayana Shrauta Sūtra, Ashvalayana Grhya Sutra, Panini’s Așhtadhyayi, Pingala’s Chandas sutras, Yaska’s Nirukta and Katyayana’s Sarvanukramani) during their lifelong study. This same set of texts were studied by the members of the family as their primary focus generation after generation and constituted their traditional vedic study or Svadhyaya. In this form of study the focus is on the recitation of the veda mantras and is not necessarily on their meaning.<ref name=":3">Sacred HIndu Scriptures and Languages - an Introduction by Vishal Agarwal ([https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=forums&srcid=MTQyNTE0MTcxODQxNzMxMDM3MDQBMDcxOTk5MzkzMTE3Mjc4NjMzNjIBWGJGZ25zZjRCUUFKATAuMQEBdjI&authuser=0 Page 4])</ref>

Taittriya Aranyakam lays down the adyayanavidhi of Svadhyaya which has been explained in Mahabhashyam (of Patanjali) as a vidhi that should be followed at all costs.<blockquote>नित्यो हि `स्वाध्यायोऽध्येतव्यः' इत्यध्ययनविधिः। यस्माद् ब्राह्मणेन निष्कारणो धर्मः षडङ्गो वेदोऽध्येयः, तदर्थश्च ज्ञातव्य: (तैत्तिरीय-आरण्यकम्, २.१५)(Mahabhashyam 3.1.3)<ref>Mahabhashyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Paspashnikam])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>nityo hi `svādhyāyo'dhyetavyaḥ' ityadhyayanavidhiḥ। yasmād brāhmaṇena niṣkāraṇo dharmaḥ ṣaḍaṅgo vedo'dhyeyaḥ, tadarthaśca jñātavya:’ (taittirīya-āraṇyakam, 2.15)(Mahabhashyam 3.1.3)</blockquote>A brahmana should without questioning the reason should learn the Dharmas, the Shadangas (vedangas) and the vedas and know their meaning. Svadhyaya is a nityakarma. The phala or result of studying svadhyaya is also given in the same anuvaka as follows <blockquote>स्वाध्यायमधीते सर्वाँल्लोकाञ्जयति सर्वाल्लोकाननृणोऽनुसंचरति तदेषाऽभ्युक्ता, इति । (Tait. Aran. 2.15)<ref>Taittriya Aranyaka ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A Prapathaka 2 Anuvaka 15]) </ref></blockquote><blockquote>svādhyāyamadhīte sarvām̐llokāñjayati sarvāllokānanr̥ṇo'nusaṁcarati tadeṣā'bhyuktā, iti । (Tait. Aran. 2.15)</blockquote>One who studies svadhyaya will acquire (surpass) all the worlds, will be free of all rnas (debts such as pitru rna, matr rna etc) and can freely move across all lokas, this is clearly stated (as the phala).

==== अध्ययनम् ॥ Adhyayana ====
It includes the study of texts in general to imbibe their teachings, and reflect upon their meaning. There may or may not be any chanting involved. The student may study them privately, or under the guidance of a Guru.<ref name=":3" />

==== पठनम् ॥ Pathana ====
Pathana generally means to read and here the context is to recite aloud, to learn by repeating the mantras etc.

Students were doing Pathana before manuscripts were accessible to one and all. After they came into usage, they were also scarce and available to, say, senior students having access to the library. [[Vedapatha Paddhati (वेदपाठपद्धतिः)|Vedapatha paddhati]] is the way the recitation of vedas is to be done by the student. There are as many as 8 different ways in which mantras are recited and memorized in olden days. This culture is gradually losing ground in the present days.

One can see that there were different methods of education employed which led to the preservation of a vast body of knowledge, the Vedas and shastras.

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Education Series]]

File:Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyas.pdf

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Megh: /* Summary */

== Summary ==
Courtesy: Megh Kalyanasundaram
http://tiny.cc/9vplhz

Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)

2019-12-13T05:13:53Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vaidika Vangmaya (Samskrit : वैदिकवाङ्मयम्) means that literature which is "associated with the Vedas". Vaidika literature includes the ancillary and subsidiary texts associated with the Vedas which have come into existence to clarify and understand the Vedas. Thus over a period of time, different explanatory shastras evolved to explain the subtle concepts presented in Vedas and they are included in under the Smrti literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref>Swami Sivananda, ''All About Hinduism''</ref>

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely spiritual but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth. Understanding vaidika literature itself developed into many branches covering different aspects of the subject. While some have developed independently (such as Jyotisha - to explain muhurtas in vaidika kriyas), others summarize (such as Kalpa which is a manual of procedures of yajnas from different vedas) and a few others are simplified summaries of codes of social existence (like the Puranas in story format, Dharmashastras in a stern format) for a comparatively easier understanding (including the Mahabharata) than the Veda itself. The following headings cover the topics discussed under Vaidika Vangmaya
# [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas]] (6)
# [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|उपवेदाः || Upa-Vedas]] (4)
# वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas (4) which are broadly covered under the following three divisions as discussed in the section below
## [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|पुराणानि || Puranas]] (18), उपपुराणानि || Upa-Puranas (18), [[Itihasa (इतिहासः)|इतिहासः || Itihasa]] (2)
## [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras]] (6)
## [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|स्मृतिग्रन्थाः || Smrti Granthas]] or Dharmashastras (18)
# अन्यग्रन्थाः || Other Smrtigranthas (Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, [[Parishista (परिशिष्टम्)|Parishistas]])
Thus we see that the above literature is a vast body of knowledge which was imparted by the Guru (Acharyas, Preceptors) to his Shishyas (disciples) in the Gurukula System of education which was in practice in ancient days. The disciples of a Guru (belonging to a particular shaka of one of the Four Vedas) were taught a particular shaka of the Veda along with the study of 14 ancillary Vaidika Vangmaya (or Veda associated subject matter) called as Chaturdasha Vidyasthanani and some went further to study 18 ancillary subjects called as Astadasha Vidyasthanani. Vidyasthanas are so called because they formed the core subject matter of [[Vidya (विद्या)]] equated to Education in present day parlance.

== विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas ==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>http://tiny.cc/9vplhz</ref> for they contain the foundational comprehensive knowledge base of the four Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha) the four pillars of [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]]. Chaturdasha Vidyas include the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Chaturvedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda), Shad(ved)angas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotish), and 4 Upangas (Puranas, Nyaya shastra (and Vaiseshika), Mimamsa and Dharmashastra) of Vedas.<ref name=":022223">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
[[File:Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyas.pdf|thumb|Chart of Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyasthanas]]
== वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas ==
The word Anga (अङ्ग) is used in the sense of Upakaraka (उपकारक | useful tool)<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref> with reference to understanding vedajnana or the knowledge of vedas, these six shastras are extremely useful, hence they are called Vedangas. The oldest reference to what constitute the Vedangas is given in Mundakopanishad <blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvēdō yajurvēdaḥ sāmavēdō'tharvavēdaḥ śikṣā kalpō vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chandō jyōtiṣamiti । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)</blockquote>Meaning : Aparavidya include the rigveda, yajurveda, samaveda, atharvaveda (four vedas), siksha, kalpa, vyakaranam, niruktam, chandas, jyothisha (6 angas of vedas). <blockquote>शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि षडेव तु ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṃ niruktaṃ chandasāṃ cayaḥ । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ caiva vedāṅgāni ṣaḍeva tu ॥</blockquote>According to the above shloka, Vedangas are six in number namely '''Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotish'''.<ref>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/vedangas/ Introduction</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
! Subject Dealt With
|-
|<nowiki>1.शिक्षा || </nowiki>[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]]
| Science of phonetics or pronunciation and intonation.
|-
|<nowiki>2.व्याकरणम् || </nowiki>[[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]]
| Science of the grammar of language
|-
|<nowiki>3.निरुक्तम् || </nowiki>[[Nirukta (निरुक्तम्)|Nirukta]]
| Etymology or the science of origin, meaning and explanation of the Vedic words.
|-
|<nowiki>4.छन्दस् || </nowiki>Chandas
| Prosody or science of composition of the hymns like meter, rhyme, पाद (quarter) etc. of the mantras
|-
|<nowiki>5.ज्योतिष् || </nowiki>[[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotisha]]
| Astronomy and astrology mainly directed towards fixing up of auspicious moments for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices
|-
|<nowiki>6.कल्पः || </nowiki>[[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]]
| Science or manual of yagna kriyas or rituals, both Vedic and domestic
|}<blockquote>छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ उच्यते । ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 41) </blockquote><blockquote>शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम् । तस्मात् साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 42) </blockquote><blockquote>chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo'tha ucyate । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam । tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaiva brahmaloke mahīyate ॥</blockquote>In Paniniya Shiksha (पाणिनीयशिक्षा), these six vedangas are described in the above shloka which means - "Chandas forms the feet of the Vedapurusha, while Kalpas are the hands, Jyotish is the eye, Nirukta forms the ears, Shiksha is the nose, while the face (speech) is formed by Vyakarana. Only by studying vedas (Vedapurusha) along with vedangas (different parts) will one attain the brahmaloka".<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Panineeyasiksha] (41 and 42)</ref><ref>Dr. S. Yegnasubramanian, The Vedangas (Organs of the Vedas).http://svbf.org/journal/vol1no3/vedas.pdf </ref>

Vedangas are thus, special shastras to understand the vedic language, meaning and their usage and the karmakanda (कर्मकाण्डः) expounded in Vedas. To discourage digressing distorted interpretations these shastras have been given by the great rishis to streamline the understanding of correct intent of the Vedas.<ref name=":42222" />
== उपवेदाः || Upavedas ==
They are called the subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number one attached to each Veda<ref name=":1">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref><ref>[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/ Introduction to Upavedas]</ref> viz.<blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चैव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्र चतुर्थन्तु विद्या ह्मष्टादशैव ताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvēdō dhanurvēdō gāndharvaścaiva tē trayaḥ । arthaśāstra caturthantu vidyā hmaṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
!Upaveda Name
! Subject Dealt with
! Associated with
|-
|[[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of healthy living including the prevention and cure of diseases
| Rigveda
|-
|[[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of archery, martial arts and warfare
| Yajurveda
|-
|[[Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)]]
|Forms of fine arts like music and dance.
| Samaveda
|-
|[[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]]
|Shastra dealing with finance, economics, politics, statesmanship, public administration
| Atharvaveda
|}Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda (स्थापत्यवेदः | architecture) as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra. Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" />
== वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas ==
Upangas of Vedas include the following four bodies of knowledge namely<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref><ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":32222">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap5.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan </ref>.
# [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]]
# Mimamsa
# [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya shastra]]
# Dharmashastra or Smrti-granthas
According to some scholars,<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref> the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad-Darshanas]] may be classified as Upangas of Vedas. According to Shri. Kishore Mishraji<ref name=":0">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> Pratipadasutra, Anupada, Chandobhasha (Pratisakhya) Dharmashastra, Nyaya and Vaiseshika constitute the six Upangas of Vedas.
=== पुराणानि ॥ Puranas ===
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|right|frameless|680x680px|border]]
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian texts about a wide range of topics particularly legends and traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major devatas such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Mahapuranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas (Minor Puranas), containing over 400,000 verses.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022">[http://www.vcscsd.org/content/balabhavan/18-Puranas.pdf 18 Puranas - English Translation] by Dharmic Scriptures Team</ref> The list of Puranas is given in Padmapurana (6.236.14-17)<ref>Padma Purana (Khanda 6 (Uttara Khanda) Adhyaya 236) in sa.wikisource.org</ref>, Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana (4.7.1), Agni Purana (10.8.3)<ref name=":022" />

The 18 Mahapuranas listed in Vishnu puranam<ref name=":1" /> are as follows<blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते। ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē। brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21)</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21) </blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्त्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम्। वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चैव त्रयोदशम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22)</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivarttaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam। vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcaiva trayōdaśam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22) </blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम्। मात्स्यञ्च गारुडञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततःपरम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam। mātsyañca gāruḍañcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥparam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्मष्टादश महामुने ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hmaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote>Meaning : 18 Puranas have been seen (given). They include Brahma Purana, Padma purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana. And the others are Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana is the seventh, Agni Purana is the eighth, Bhavishya purana being the ninth. the tenth is Brahma vaivarta Purana, the eleventh is termed Linga Purana. Varaha Purana is the twelfth and Skanda Purana the thirteenth, fourteenth is Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana is termed the fifteenth. Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana come after these. And (eighteen) Upapuranas have been given by rishis along with these Mahapuranas.

=== उपपुराणानि ॥ Upapuranas ===
The Upapuranas are variously given in different texts. However a few are common in all these versions. Upapuranas also describe the legends, vratas and discuss a vast number of topics (such as creation, [[Kala (कालः)|Kala]], [[Dana (दानम्)|Dana]], information on subjects like Dharma and Polity etc) similar to the Puranas.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''अष्टादश उपपुराणानि'''
!S. No.
!स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda purana (4.7.1)<ref name=":022" />
!गरुडपुराणम् ॥ Garuda Purana<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
!देवीभागवतम् ॥ Devibhagavata<ref name=":42222" />
!कूर्मपुराणम् ॥ Kurma Purana<ref>Kurma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1])</ref><ref>Upapurana List from [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Shabdakalpadhurma]</ref>
|-
|1
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|-
|2
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|नरसिंहम्पुराणम् ॥ Narasimha Purana
|-
|3
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|शिवपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Purana
|<nowiki>स्कन्दपुराणम् || Skanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|4
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Dharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|-
|5
|दुर्वासपुराणाम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|नन्दीश्वर ॥ Nandiswara Purana
|मानवपुराणम् ॥ Manava Purana
|दूर्वासपुराणम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|-
|6
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदीयपुराणम् ॥ Naradeeya Purana
|-
|7
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|-
|8
|मनुपुराणम् ॥ Manu Purana
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|-
|9
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|-
|10
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|आदित्यपुराणम् ॥ Aditya Purana
|<nowiki>ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् || Brahmanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|11
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|-
|12
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कल्की / कालिकापुराणम्॥ Kalki / Kalika Purana
|-
|13
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheshwara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|<nowiki>महेश्वरपुराणम् || Maheshwara Purana </nowiki>
|-
|14
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|-
|15
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|-
|16
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|-
|17
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|भागवतपुराणम् ॥ Bhagavata Purana
|मारीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|-
|18
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|भार्गवपुरानम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|वसिष्ठपुराणम् ॥ Vasishta Purana
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|}

Many other Upapuranas are also available such as Ganapatya / Mudgala ( गाणपत्यम् / मुद्गलम्), Vasishta (वासिष्ठम्), Hamsa from other different sources and a total of upto 30 Upapuranas are mentioned, though their availability is not known.<ref name=":42222" /> Thus, we see from the two lists that the names of a few Puranas are the same in both Puranas and Upapuranas (ex: Skanda purana, Vamana purana)

According to a few scholars, "Bhagavata" in Puranas refers to Devibhagavata and not Shrimad Bhagavata containing the stories of SriKrishna.(Page 174 of Sanskrita Sahitya Charitra<ref name=":42222" />). However, it is certain that both are equally valuable and instructive. Devi Bhagavata is specially fitted for those inclined to metaphysics while the Vaishnava Bhagavata endears one with Bhakti.<ref name=":024" />

The Puranas have been highly influential in the development of Bharatiya samskriti. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature) or pertaining to vedas with easy understanding as mentioned by Shivamahapurana <ref name=":022" />.

=== इतिहासः ॥ Itihasas ===
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful epics of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the Maharshi Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref>Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}

==== The Ramayana ====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, Aranyakanda, Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

=== दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras ===
The chaturdasha vidyas mention Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras as part of the the Veda Upangas. In the present context, considering all the Shad darshanas to be part of the veda Upangas, they have been discussed completely in this project.

Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the shastra rachana paddhati or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds - Adibhoutika, Adhyatmika, Adidaivika.

The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
*Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
*Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
*Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information on the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|[[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darshana]]
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika Darshana]]
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya Darshana]]
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|[[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa Darshana]]
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti
Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita : Sri Shankaracharya Vishishtadvaita : Sri Ramanujam
Dvaita : Madhavacharya
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

=== स्मृतिग्रन्थयः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras ===
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":0222">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Dharmasutras Vs Dharmashastras (Smrtis)====
Smrtis, the codified law books, otherwise known as Dharmashastras, are different texts as against the Dharmasutra works (Shrauta Sutras and Dharma Sutras) given in the [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpas]]. Smrti texts have laid emphasis on the karmaushtana on the social front as compared to karmanushtana of an individual. These granthas contain information on the aspects of administration and governance, it may be said that as the number of kingdoms grew, so also the number of Smrti granthas.

Dharmasutras are the basis of composing Dharmashastra granthas. Dharmasutra granthas are cryptic, abbreviated with short explanations of the sutras, hence they required bhashyas or commentaries and tikas for understanding them.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras Contrasted<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. (1962) ''[https://archive.org/details/106533393DharmasutrasAStudyInTheirOriginAndDevelopmentSBanerjiCalcutta1962600dpiLossy/page/n15 Dharmasutras, A Study in their Origin and Development.]'' Calcutta : Punthi Pustak</ref>
!
!Dharmasutras
!Dharmashastras
|-
|Texts
|Part of Kalpa : Ex - Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Baudhayana
|Smrti granthas - Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti
|-
|Form
|Composed in prose intermixed with slokas
|Composed as slokas (metrical form) exclusively
|-
|Language
|Language is प्राचीन (archaic )
|Language is अर्वाचीन (modern)
|-
|Arrangement of topics
|No arrangement into topics is seen though presented in an orderly manner
|Topics are given under distinct heads.
|}

==== Manava Dharmashastra ====
Another point of debate among the scholars is whether the book named Manava-dharmashastra (मनव-धर्मशास्त्रम्) and Manusmrti are one and the same. Both these texts have been authored by Manu, who is considered as the Adipurusha (first in the human race), as per Samhita and Brahmanas. However, the aspects found in Manava-dharmashastra, which are found in other ancient texts, are not to be seen in Manusmrti. Hence is believed by scholars that Manava-dharmashastra and Manusmrti are two different texts and that Manusmrti is founded on the principles given in Manava-dharmashastra.<ref name=":42222" />
====Number of Smritis====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti|Manu Smrti]], Yajnavalkya Smrti (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिः) and Parasara Smrti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.<ref name=":5" />
*Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
*Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
*Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
*Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
*Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, however, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref><blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji,<ref name=":32222" /> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

Swami Sivananda<ref name=":0222" />, mentions that the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":0222" />

== Other Smrti Works ==
Apart from these major texts, other works like Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Dharmashastra Nibandhas like Nirnayasindhu, Dharmasindhu etc, Tamil vedas among other texts have expanded largely for the guidance of people to interpret the various aspects given in above discussed Smrti texts.
=== अनुक्रमणिकाः || Anukramanikas ===
For the protection of Veda mantras Anukramanika granthas (अनुक्रमणिकाग्रन्था-s) have been compiled. These Anukramanikas are lists that contain concise information about the Veda mantra's rishi, chandas and devatas. The most important rishis who contributed to creation of these lists include - Shaunaka (शौनकः), Katyayana (कात्यायनः). Though these Anukramanikas are not included Vedangas, these play an important role in the [[Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)|protection of vedas]].

In Rigveda, the rishi, chandas, devata, anuvaka (अनुवाकः), sukta (अनुवाकः) number, the name and important features are compiled in structured manner, in Anustup chandas (अनुष्टुप् छन्दस्). The phalasiddhi (फलसिद्धिः | benefits) of chanting particular mantras is also explained in detail. Such texts are available for other vedas also (Page 94 and 95 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />).

=== Nibandhanas ===
Kanchi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Paramacharya, explains that some Smrtis do not contain instructions with regard to all observances. The matters explained in one Smrti may not be found in an other, thus giving rise to doubts in acharas which are to be cleared by using the works called "Dharmashastra Nibandhanas". These nibandhanas do not leave out any rite or dharma. Nirnayasindhu (by Kamalakara Bhatta), Vaidyanatha Dikshitiyam, Dharmasindhu are accepted and referred to authoritative texts in the present day.<ref name=":32222" />
== संवादः || Discussion ==
Traditionally, the Chaturdasha vidyas consider Puranas, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharmashastras as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":32222" /> However, due to similarity of names a few questions arise here
# Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras are mentioned under the classification of [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] and as those among the Veda Upangas.
# Dharmasutras are given in Kalpas (as Vedangas) and Dharmashastras are mentioned as one among the Veda Upangas.
What are included in these texts?

Dr. N. Sivasenani of University of Hyderabad, presents a few thoughts about these questions <blockquote>''"Nyaya" should be taken to mean Nyaya-Vaiseshika-Sankhya and Yoga; and Mimamsa covers both Purva- and Uttara-mimamsas. Why should it be so? Based on the context. Further, Puranas include Mahabharata and Ramayana."''</blockquote><blockquote>''"In the Vedanga Kalpas, there are four kinds of Sutras - Shrauta- (dealing with vedic rites), Grhya- (dealing with 16 samskaras)-, Dharma- (dealing with secular matters) and Shulba- sutras. However, of these, Dharmasutras got expanded tremendously. Firstly, there are the eighteen Smritis - like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and so on. Note that this enumeration is a Srmiti-work and not a Sutra-work such as Apastambasutras of Kalpas. Then these have further been expanded by huge commentaries. Further, omnibus volumes of "Nibandhas" came into existence which are a compilation of views of various Smritis and other authorities. Then since Nibandhas grew in volume, condensed manuals combining Srauta-, Grihya- and Dharma- sutra elements like Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu came about. So much so that today, Dharmasindhu is usually the first and last reference when a question of Dharma arises (example: when is Sivaratri this year or who are sapindas). Since this part alone grew in volume, it is listed separately under Dharmashastras."''</blockquote>To summarize
* It can be said that Nyaya and Mimamsa are Upangas (Chaturdasha Vidyas) and Darshana shastras (Shad Darsanas) and based on Vedas. The Dharmasutras of Kalpa Vedanga and the Dharmashastras of Upangas are the same texts. <ref name=":12" />
* Dharmasutras given under Kalpa Vedanga, for example : Apasthamba sutras (आपस्तम्बसूत्र-s) refer mainly to sutra works of dharmas associated with specific shrauta yajnika kriyas (श्रौतयाज्ञिकक्रियाः). These have been hugely expanded into Dharma-shastras (Smritis works), for example : Manu smriti. These refer to dharmas applicable to man in general society.
* While in Kalpas, '''Dharmasutras''' (classified under Vedanga) generally lay down the code of conduct to be followed by a person engaged in vaidika yagna kriyas, '''Dharmashastras''' (classified under Upangas) lay down the general moral code of conduct applicable to every human being. Also Dharmashastras include later day texts combining the different parts of Kalpas, codified into condensed versions as in Dharmasindhu and Nirnayasindhu (निर्णयसिन्धुः).
* Mimamsa is divided into Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa. Purva Mimamsa highlights the discriminating and decision making qualities of the Vedas by analysis. Here, Purva Mimamsa is generally what is considered for the term Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called as Vedanta, which is classified under the Jnanakanda (ज्ञानकाण्डः).
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Puranas]]

Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)

2019-12-13T05:11:35Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vaidika Vangmaya (Samskrit : वैदिकवाङ्मयम्) means that literature which is "associated with the Vedas". Vaidika literature includes the ancillary and subsidiary texts associated with the Vedas which have come into existence to clarify and understand the Vedas. Thus over a period of time, different explanatory shastras evolved to explain the subtle concepts presented in Vedas and they are included in under the Smrti literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref>Swami Sivananda, ''All About Hinduism''</ref>

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely spiritual but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth. Understanding vaidika literature itself developed into many branches covering different aspects of the subject. While some have developed independently (such as Jyotisha - to explain muhurtas in vaidika kriyas), others summarize (such as Kalpa which is a manual of procedures of yajnas from different vedas) and a few others are simplified summaries of codes of social existence (like the Puranas in story format, Dharmashastras in a stern format) for a comparatively easier understanding (including the Mahabharata) than the Veda itself. The following headings cover the topics discussed under Vaidika Vangmaya
# [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas]] (6)
# [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|उपवेदाः || Upa-Vedas]] (4)
# वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas (4) which are broadly covered under the following three divisions as discussed in the section below
## [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|पुराणानि || Puranas]] (18), उपपुराणानि || Upa-Puranas (18), [[Itihasa (इतिहासः)|इतिहासः || Itihasa]] (2)
## [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras]] (6)
## [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|स्मृतिग्रन्थाः || Smrti Granthas]] or Dharmashastras (18)
# अन्यग्रन्थाः || Other Smrtigranthas (Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, [[Parishista (परिशिष्टम्)|Parishistas]])
Thus we see that the above literature is a vast body of knowledge which was imparted by the Guru (Acharyas, Preceptors) to his Shishyas (disciples) in the Gurukula System of education which was in practice in ancient days. The disciples of a Guru (belonging to a particular shaka of one of the Four Vedas) were taught a particular shaka of the Veda along with the study of 14 ancillary Vaidika Vangmaya (or Veda associated subject matter) called as Chaturdasha Vidyasthanani and some went further to study 18 ancillary subjects called as Astadasha Vidyasthanani. Vidyasthanas are so called because they formed the core subject matter of [[Vidya (विद्या)]] equated to Education in present day parlance.

== विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas ==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>shorturl.at/cdk04</ref> for they contain the foundational comprehensive knowledge base of the four Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha) the four pillars of [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]]. Chaturdasha Vidyas include the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Chaturvedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda), Shad(ved)angas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotish), and 4 Upangas (Puranas, Nyaya shastra (and Vaiseshika), Mimamsa and Dharmashastra) of Vedas.<ref name=":022223">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
[[File:Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyas.pdf|thumb|Chart of Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyasthanas]]
== वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas ==
The word Anga (अङ्ग) is used in the sense of Upakaraka (उपकारक | useful tool)<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref> with reference to understanding vedajnana or the knowledge of vedas, these six shastras are extremely useful, hence they are called Vedangas. The oldest reference to what constitute the Vedangas is given in Mundakopanishad <blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvēdō yajurvēdaḥ sāmavēdō'tharvavēdaḥ śikṣā kalpō vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chandō jyōtiṣamiti । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)</blockquote>Meaning : Aparavidya include the rigveda, yajurveda, samaveda, atharvaveda (four vedas), siksha, kalpa, vyakaranam, niruktam, chandas, jyothisha (6 angas of vedas). <blockquote>शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि षडेव तु ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṃ niruktaṃ chandasāṃ cayaḥ । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ caiva vedāṅgāni ṣaḍeva tu ॥</blockquote>According to the above shloka, Vedangas are six in number namely '''Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotish'''.<ref>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/vedangas/ Introduction</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
! Subject Dealt With
|-
|<nowiki>1.शिक्षा || </nowiki>[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]]
| Science of phonetics or pronunciation and intonation.
|-
|<nowiki>2.व्याकरणम् || </nowiki>[[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]]
| Science of the grammar of language
|-
|<nowiki>3.निरुक्तम् || </nowiki>[[Nirukta (निरुक्तम्)|Nirukta]]
| Etymology or the science of origin, meaning and explanation of the Vedic words.
|-
|<nowiki>4.छन्दस् || </nowiki>Chandas
| Prosody or science of composition of the hymns like meter, rhyme, पाद (quarter) etc. of the mantras
|-
|<nowiki>5.ज्योतिष् || </nowiki>[[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotisha]]
| Astronomy and astrology mainly directed towards fixing up of auspicious moments for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices
|-
|<nowiki>6.कल्पः || </nowiki>[[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]]
| Science or manual of yagna kriyas or rituals, both Vedic and domestic
|}<blockquote>छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ उच्यते । ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 41) </blockquote><blockquote>शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम् । तस्मात् साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 42) </blockquote><blockquote>chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo'tha ucyate । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam । tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaiva brahmaloke mahīyate ॥</blockquote>In Paniniya Shiksha (पाणिनीयशिक्षा), these six vedangas are described in the above shloka which means - "Chandas forms the feet of the Vedapurusha, while Kalpas are the hands, Jyotish is the eye, Nirukta forms the ears, Shiksha is the nose, while the face (speech) is formed by Vyakarana. Only by studying vedas (Vedapurusha) along with vedangas (different parts) will one attain the brahmaloka".<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Panineeyasiksha] (41 and 42)</ref><ref>Dr. S. Yegnasubramanian, The Vedangas (Organs of the Vedas).http://svbf.org/journal/vol1no3/vedas.pdf </ref>

Vedangas are thus, special shastras to understand the vedic language, meaning and their usage and the karmakanda (कर्मकाण्डः) expounded in Vedas. To discourage digressing distorted interpretations these shastras have been given by the great rishis to streamline the understanding of correct intent of the Vedas.<ref name=":42222" />
== उपवेदाः || Upavedas ==
They are called the subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number one attached to each Veda<ref name=":1">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref><ref>[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/ Introduction to Upavedas]</ref> viz.<blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चैव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्र चतुर्थन्तु विद्या ह्मष्टादशैव ताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvēdō dhanurvēdō gāndharvaścaiva tē trayaḥ । arthaśāstra caturthantu vidyā hmaṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
!Upaveda Name
! Subject Dealt with
! Associated with
|-
|[[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of healthy living including the prevention and cure of diseases
| Rigveda
|-
|[[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of archery, martial arts and warfare
| Yajurveda
|-
|[[Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)]]
|Forms of fine arts like music and dance.
| Samaveda
|-
|[[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]]
|Shastra dealing with finance, economics, politics, statesmanship, public administration
| Atharvaveda
|}Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda (स्थापत्यवेदः | architecture) as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra. Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" />
== वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas ==
Upangas of Vedas include the following four bodies of knowledge namely<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref><ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":32222">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap5.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan </ref>.
# [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]]
# Mimamsa
# [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya shastra]]
# Dharmashastra or Smrti-granthas
According to some scholars,<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref> the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad-Darshanas]] may be classified as Upangas of Vedas. According to Shri. Kishore Mishraji<ref name=":0">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> Pratipadasutra, Anupada, Chandobhasha (Pratisakhya) Dharmashastra, Nyaya and Vaiseshika constitute the six Upangas of Vedas.
=== पुराणानि ॥ Puranas ===
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|right|frameless|680x680px|border]]
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian texts about a wide range of topics particularly legends and traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major devatas such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Mahapuranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas (Minor Puranas), containing over 400,000 verses.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022">[http://www.vcscsd.org/content/balabhavan/18-Puranas.pdf 18 Puranas - English Translation] by Dharmic Scriptures Team</ref> The list of Puranas is given in Padmapurana (6.236.14-17)<ref>Padma Purana (Khanda 6 (Uttara Khanda) Adhyaya 236) in sa.wikisource.org</ref>, Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana (4.7.1), Agni Purana (10.8.3)<ref name=":022" />

The 18 Mahapuranas listed in Vishnu puranam<ref name=":1" /> are as follows<blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते। ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē। brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21)</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21) </blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्त्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम्। वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चैव त्रयोदशम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22)</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivarttaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam। vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcaiva trayōdaśam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22) </blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम्। मात्स्यञ्च गारुडञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततःपरम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam। mātsyañca gāruḍañcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥparam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्मष्टादश महामुने ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hmaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote>Meaning : 18 Puranas have been seen (given). They include Brahma Purana, Padma purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana. And the others are Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana is the seventh, Agni Purana is the eighth, Bhavishya purana being the ninth. the tenth is Brahma vaivarta Purana, the eleventh is termed Linga Purana. Varaha Purana is the twelfth and Skanda Purana the thirteenth, fourteenth is Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana is termed the fifteenth. Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana come after these. And (eighteen) Upapuranas have been given by rishis along with these Mahapuranas.

=== उपपुराणानि ॥ Upapuranas ===
The Upapuranas are variously given in different texts. However a few are common in all these versions. Upapuranas also describe the legends, vratas and discuss a vast number of topics (such as creation, [[Kala (कालः)|Kala]], [[Dana (दानम्)|Dana]], information on subjects like Dharma and Polity etc) similar to the Puranas.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''अष्टादश उपपुराणानि'''
!S. No.
!स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda purana (4.7.1)<ref name=":022" />
!गरुडपुराणम् ॥ Garuda Purana<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
!देवीभागवतम् ॥ Devibhagavata<ref name=":42222" />
!कूर्मपुराणम् ॥ Kurma Purana<ref>Kurma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1])</ref><ref>Upapurana List from [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Shabdakalpadhurma]</ref>
|-
|1
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|-
|2
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|नरसिंहम्पुराणम् ॥ Narasimha Purana
|-
|3
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|शिवपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Purana
|<nowiki>स्कन्दपुराणम् || Skanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|4
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Dharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|-
|5
|दुर्वासपुराणाम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|नन्दीश्वर ॥ Nandiswara Purana
|मानवपुराणम् ॥ Manava Purana
|दूर्वासपुराणम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|-
|6
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदीयपुराणम् ॥ Naradeeya Purana
|-
|7
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|-
|8
|मनुपुराणम् ॥ Manu Purana
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|-
|9
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|-
|10
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|आदित्यपुराणम् ॥ Aditya Purana
|<nowiki>ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् || Brahmanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|11
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|-
|12
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कल्की / कालिकापुराणम्॥ Kalki / Kalika Purana
|-
|13
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheshwara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|<nowiki>महेश्वरपुराणम् || Maheshwara Purana </nowiki>
|-
|14
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|-
|15
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|-
|16
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|-
|17
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|भागवतपुराणम् ॥ Bhagavata Purana
|मारीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|-
|18
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|भार्गवपुरानम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|वसिष्ठपुराणम् ॥ Vasishta Purana
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|}

Many other Upapuranas are also available such as Ganapatya / Mudgala ( गाणपत्यम् / मुद्गलम्), Vasishta (वासिष्ठम्), Hamsa from other different sources and a total of upto 30 Upapuranas are mentioned, though their availability is not known.<ref name=":42222" /> Thus, we see from the two lists that the names of a few Puranas are the same in both Puranas and Upapuranas (ex: Skanda purana, Vamana purana)

According to a few scholars, "Bhagavata" in Puranas refers to Devibhagavata and not Shrimad Bhagavata containing the stories of SriKrishna.(Page 174 of Sanskrita Sahitya Charitra<ref name=":42222" />). However, it is certain that both are equally valuable and instructive. Devi Bhagavata is specially fitted for those inclined to metaphysics while the Vaishnava Bhagavata endears one with Bhakti.<ref name=":024" />

The Puranas have been highly influential in the development of Bharatiya samskriti. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature) or pertaining to vedas with easy understanding as mentioned by Shivamahapurana <ref name=":022" />.

=== इतिहासः ॥ Itihasas ===
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful epics of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the Maharshi Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref>Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}

==== The Ramayana ====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, Aranyakanda, Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

=== दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras ===
The chaturdasha vidyas mention Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras as part of the the Veda Upangas. In the present context, considering all the Shad darshanas to be part of the veda Upangas, they have been discussed completely in this project.

Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the shastra rachana paddhati or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds - Adibhoutika, Adhyatmika, Adidaivika.

The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
*Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
*Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
*Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information on the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|[[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darshana]]
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika Darshana]]
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya Darshana]]
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|[[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa Darshana]]
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti
Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita : Sri Shankaracharya Vishishtadvaita : Sri Ramanujam
Dvaita : Madhavacharya
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

=== स्मृतिग्रन्थयः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras ===
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":0222">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Dharmasutras Vs Dharmashastras (Smrtis)====
Smrtis, the codified law books, otherwise known as Dharmashastras, are different texts as against the Dharmasutra works (Shrauta Sutras and Dharma Sutras) given in the [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpas]]. Smrti texts have laid emphasis on the karmaushtana on the social front as compared to karmanushtana of an individual. These granthas contain information on the aspects of administration and governance, it may be said that as the number of kingdoms grew, so also the number of Smrti granthas.

Dharmasutras are the basis of composing Dharmashastra granthas. Dharmasutra granthas are cryptic, abbreviated with short explanations of the sutras, hence they required bhashyas or commentaries and tikas for understanding them.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras Contrasted<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. (1962) ''[https://archive.org/details/106533393DharmasutrasAStudyInTheirOriginAndDevelopmentSBanerjiCalcutta1962600dpiLossy/page/n15 Dharmasutras, A Study in their Origin and Development.]'' Calcutta : Punthi Pustak</ref>
!
!Dharmasutras
!Dharmashastras
|-
|Texts
|Part of Kalpa : Ex - Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Baudhayana
|Smrti granthas - Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti
|-
|Form
|Composed in prose intermixed with slokas
|Composed as slokas (metrical form) exclusively
|-
|Language
|Language is प्राचीन (archaic )
|Language is अर्वाचीन (modern)
|-
|Arrangement of topics
|No arrangement into topics is seen though presented in an orderly manner
|Topics are given under distinct heads.
|}

==== Manava Dharmashastra ====
Another point of debate among the scholars is whether the book named Manava-dharmashastra (मनव-धर्मशास्त्रम्) and Manusmrti are one and the same. Both these texts have been authored by Manu, who is considered as the Adipurusha (first in the human race), as per Samhita and Brahmanas. However, the aspects found in Manava-dharmashastra, which are found in other ancient texts, are not to be seen in Manusmrti. Hence is believed by scholars that Manava-dharmashastra and Manusmrti are two different texts and that Manusmrti is founded on the principles given in Manava-dharmashastra.<ref name=":42222" />
====Number of Smritis====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti|Manu Smrti]], Yajnavalkya Smrti (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिः) and Parasara Smrti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.<ref name=":5" />
*Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
*Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
*Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
*Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
*Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, however, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref><blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji,<ref name=":32222" /> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

Swami Sivananda<ref name=":0222" />, mentions that the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":0222" />

== Other Smrti Works ==
Apart from these major texts, other works like Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Dharmashastra Nibandhas like Nirnayasindhu, Dharmasindhu etc, Tamil vedas among other texts have expanded largely for the guidance of people to interpret the various aspects given in above discussed Smrti texts.
=== अनुक्रमणिकाः || Anukramanikas ===
For the protection of Veda mantras Anukramanika granthas (अनुक्रमणिकाग्रन्था-s) have been compiled. These Anukramanikas are lists that contain concise information about the Veda mantra's rishi, chandas and devatas. The most important rishis who contributed to creation of these lists include - Shaunaka (शौनकः), Katyayana (कात्यायनः). Though these Anukramanikas are not included Vedangas, these play an important role in the [[Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)|protection of vedas]].

In Rigveda, the rishi, chandas, devata, anuvaka (अनुवाकः), sukta (अनुवाकः) number, the name and important features are compiled in structured manner, in Anustup chandas (अनुष्टुप् छन्दस्). The phalasiddhi (फलसिद्धिः | benefits) of chanting particular mantras is also explained in detail. Such texts are available for other vedas also (Page 94 and 95 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />).

=== Nibandhanas ===
Kanchi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Paramacharya, explains that some Smrtis do not contain instructions with regard to all observances. The matters explained in one Smrti may not be found in an other, thus giving rise to doubts in acharas which are to be cleared by using the works called "Dharmashastra Nibandhanas". These nibandhanas do not leave out any rite or dharma. Nirnayasindhu (by Kamalakara Bhatta), Vaidyanatha Dikshitiyam, Dharmasindhu are accepted and referred to authoritative texts in the present day.<ref name=":32222" />
== संवादः || Discussion ==
Traditionally, the Chaturdasha vidyas consider Puranas, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharmashastras as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":32222" /> However, due to similarity of names a few questions arise here
# Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras are mentioned under the classification of [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] and as those among the Veda Upangas.
# Dharmasutras are given in Kalpas (as Vedangas) and Dharmashastras are mentioned as one among the Veda Upangas.
What are included in these texts?

Dr. N. Sivasenani of University of Hyderabad, presents a few thoughts about these questions <blockquote>''"Nyaya" should be taken to mean Nyaya-Vaiseshika-Sankhya and Yoga; and Mimamsa covers both Purva- and Uttara-mimamsas. Why should it be so? Based on the context. Further, Puranas include Mahabharata and Ramayana."''</blockquote><blockquote>''"In the Vedanga Kalpas, there are four kinds of Sutras - Shrauta- (dealing with vedic rites), Grhya- (dealing with 16 samskaras)-, Dharma- (dealing with secular matters) and Shulba- sutras. However, of these, Dharmasutras got expanded tremendously. Firstly, there are the eighteen Smritis - like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and so on. Note that this enumeration is a Srmiti-work and not a Sutra-work such as Apastambasutras of Kalpas. Then these have further been expanded by huge commentaries. Further, omnibus volumes of "Nibandhas" came into existence which are a compilation of views of various Smritis and other authorities. Then since Nibandhas grew in volume, condensed manuals combining Srauta-, Grihya- and Dharma- sutra elements like Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu came about. So much so that today, Dharmasindhu is usually the first and last reference when a question of Dharma arises (example: when is Sivaratri this year or who are sapindas). Since this part alone grew in volume, it is listed separately under Dharmashastras."''</blockquote>To summarize
* It can be said that Nyaya and Mimamsa are Upangas (Chaturdasha Vidyas) and Darshana shastras (Shad Darsanas) and based on Vedas. The Dharmasutras of Kalpa Vedanga and the Dharmashastras of Upangas are the same texts. <ref name=":12" />
* Dharmasutras given under Kalpa Vedanga, for example : Apasthamba sutras (आपस्तम्बसूत्र-s) refer mainly to sutra works of dharmas associated with specific shrauta yajnika kriyas (श्रौतयाज्ञिकक्रियाः). These have been hugely expanded into Dharma-shastras (Smritis works), for example : Manu smriti. These refer to dharmas applicable to man in general society.
* While in Kalpas, '''Dharmasutras''' (classified under Vedanga) generally lay down the code of conduct to be followed by a person engaged in vaidika yagna kriyas, '''Dharmashastras''' (classified under Upangas) lay down the general moral code of conduct applicable to every human being. Also Dharmashastras include later day texts combining the different parts of Kalpas, codified into condensed versions as in Dharmasindhu and Nirnayasindhu (निर्णयसिन्धुः).
* Mimamsa is divided into Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa. Purva Mimamsa highlights the discriminating and decision making qualities of the Vedas by analysis. Here, Purva Mimamsa is generally what is considered for the term Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called as Vedanta, which is classified under the Jnanakanda (ज्ञानकाण्डः).
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Puranas]]

Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)

2019-12-13T05:09:44Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vaidika Vangmaya (Samskrit : वैदिकवाङ्मयम्) means that literature which is "associated with the Vedas". Vaidika literature includes the ancillary and subsidiary texts associated with the Vedas which have come into existence to clarify and understand the Vedas. Thus over a period of time, different explanatory shastras evolved to explain the subtle concepts presented in Vedas and they are included in under the Smrti literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref>Swami Sivananda, ''All About Hinduism''</ref>

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely spiritual but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth. Understanding vaidika literature itself developed into many branches covering different aspects of the subject. While some have developed independently (such as Jyotisha - to explain muhurtas in vaidika kriyas), others summarize (such as Kalpa which is a manual of procedures of yajnas from different vedas) and a few others are simplified summaries of codes of social existence (like the Puranas in story format, Dharmashastras in a stern format) for a comparatively easier understanding (including the Mahabharata) than the Veda itself. The following headings cover the topics discussed under Vaidika Vangmaya
# [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas]] (6)
# [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|उपवेदाः || Upa-Vedas]] (4)
# वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas (4) which are broadly covered under the following three divisions as discussed in the section below
## [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|पुराणानि || Puranas]] (18), उपपुराणानि || Upa-Puranas (18), [[Itihasa (इतिहासः)|इतिहासः || Itihasa]] (2)
## [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras]] (6)
## [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|स्मृतिग्रन्थाः || Smrti Granthas]] or Dharmashastras (18)
# अन्यग्रन्थाः || Other Smrtigranthas (Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, [[Parishista (परिशिष्टम्)|Parishistas]])
Thus we see that the above literature is a vast body of knowledge which was imparted by the Guru (Acharyas, Preceptors) to his Shishyas (disciples) in the Gurukula System of education which was in practice in ancient days. The disciples of a Guru (belonging to a particular shaka of one of the Four Vedas) were taught a particular shaka of the Veda along with the study of 14 ancillary Vaidika Vangmaya (or Veda associated subject matter) called as Chaturdasha Vidyasthanani and some went further to study 18 ancillary subjects called as Astadasha Vidyasthanani. Vidyasthanas are so called because they formed the core subject matter of [[Vidya (विद्या)]] equated to Education in present day parlance.

== विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas ==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>http://tiny.cc/6zolhz</ref> for they contain the foundational comprehensive knowledge base of the four Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha) the four pillars of [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]]. Chaturdasha Vidyas include the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Chaturvedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda), Shad(ved)angas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotish), and 4 Upangas (Puranas, Nyaya shastra (and Vaiseshika), Mimamsa and Dharmashastra) of Vedas.<ref name=":022223">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
[[File:Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyas.pdf|thumb|Chart of Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyasthanas]]
== वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas ==
The word Anga (अङ्ग) is used in the sense of Upakaraka (उपकारक | useful tool)<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref> with reference to understanding vedajnana or the knowledge of vedas, these six shastras are extremely useful, hence they are called Vedangas. The oldest reference to what constitute the Vedangas is given in Mundakopanishad <blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvēdō yajurvēdaḥ sāmavēdō'tharvavēdaḥ śikṣā kalpō vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chandō jyōtiṣamiti । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)</blockquote>Meaning : Aparavidya include the rigveda, yajurveda, samaveda, atharvaveda (four vedas), siksha, kalpa, vyakaranam, niruktam, chandas, jyothisha (6 angas of vedas). <blockquote>शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि षडेव तु ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṃ niruktaṃ chandasāṃ cayaḥ । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ caiva vedāṅgāni ṣaḍeva tu ॥</blockquote>According to the above shloka, Vedangas are six in number namely '''Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotish'''.<ref>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/vedangas/ Introduction</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
! Subject Dealt With
|-
|<nowiki>1.शिक्षा || </nowiki>[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]]
| Science of phonetics or pronunciation and intonation.
|-
|<nowiki>2.व्याकरणम् || </nowiki>[[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]]
| Science of the grammar of language
|-
|<nowiki>3.निरुक्तम् || </nowiki>[[Nirukta (निरुक्तम्)|Nirukta]]
| Etymology or the science of origin, meaning and explanation of the Vedic words.
|-
|<nowiki>4.छन्दस् || </nowiki>Chandas
| Prosody or science of composition of the hymns like meter, rhyme, पाद (quarter) etc. of the mantras
|-
|<nowiki>5.ज्योतिष् || </nowiki>[[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotisha]]
| Astronomy and astrology mainly directed towards fixing up of auspicious moments for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices
|-
|<nowiki>6.कल्पः || </nowiki>[[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]]
| Science or manual of yagna kriyas or rituals, both Vedic and domestic
|}<blockquote>छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ उच्यते । ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 41) </blockquote><blockquote>शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम् । तस्मात् साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 42) </blockquote><blockquote>chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo'tha ucyate । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam । tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaiva brahmaloke mahīyate ॥</blockquote>In Paniniya Shiksha (पाणिनीयशिक्षा), these six vedangas are described in the above shloka which means - "Chandas forms the feet of the Vedapurusha, while Kalpas are the hands, Jyotish is the eye, Nirukta forms the ears, Shiksha is the nose, while the face (speech) is formed by Vyakarana. Only by studying vedas (Vedapurusha) along with vedangas (different parts) will one attain the brahmaloka".<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Panineeyasiksha] (41 and 42)</ref><ref>Dr. S. Yegnasubramanian, The Vedangas (Organs of the Vedas).http://svbf.org/journal/vol1no3/vedas.pdf </ref>

Vedangas are thus, special shastras to understand the vedic language, meaning and their usage and the karmakanda (कर्मकाण्डः) expounded in Vedas. To discourage digressing distorted interpretations these shastras have been given by the great rishis to streamline the understanding of correct intent of the Vedas.<ref name=":42222" />
== उपवेदाः || Upavedas ==
They are called the subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number one attached to each Veda<ref name=":1">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref><ref>[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/ Introduction to Upavedas]</ref> viz.<blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चैव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्र चतुर्थन्तु विद्या ह्मष्टादशैव ताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvēdō dhanurvēdō gāndharvaścaiva tē trayaḥ । arthaśāstra caturthantu vidyā hmaṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
!Upaveda Name
! Subject Dealt with
! Associated with
|-
|[[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of healthy living including the prevention and cure of diseases
| Rigveda
|-
|[[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of archery, martial arts and warfare
| Yajurveda
|-
|[[Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)]]
|Forms of fine arts like music and dance.
| Samaveda
|-
|[[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]]
|Shastra dealing with finance, economics, politics, statesmanship, public administration
| Atharvaveda
|}Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda (स्थापत्यवेदः | architecture) as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra. Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" />
== वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas ==
Upangas of Vedas include the following four bodies of knowledge namely<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref><ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":32222">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap5.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan </ref>.
# [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]]
# Mimamsa
# [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya shastra]]
# Dharmashastra or Smrti-granthas
According to some scholars,<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref> the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad-Darshanas]] may be classified as Upangas of Vedas. According to Shri. Kishore Mishraji<ref name=":0">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> Pratipadasutra, Anupada, Chandobhasha (Pratisakhya) Dharmashastra, Nyaya and Vaiseshika constitute the six Upangas of Vedas.
=== पुराणानि ॥ Puranas ===
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|right|frameless|680x680px|border]]
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian texts about a wide range of topics particularly legends and traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major devatas such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Mahapuranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas (Minor Puranas), containing over 400,000 verses.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022">[http://www.vcscsd.org/content/balabhavan/18-Puranas.pdf 18 Puranas - English Translation] by Dharmic Scriptures Team</ref> The list of Puranas is given in Padmapurana (6.236.14-17)<ref>Padma Purana (Khanda 6 (Uttara Khanda) Adhyaya 236) in sa.wikisource.org</ref>, Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana (4.7.1), Agni Purana (10.8.3)<ref name=":022" />

The 18 Mahapuranas listed in Vishnu puranam<ref name=":1" /> are as follows<blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते। ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē। brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21)</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21) </blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्त्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम्। वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चैव त्रयोदशम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22)</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivarttaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam। vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcaiva trayōdaśam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22) </blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम्। मात्स्यञ्च गारुडञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततःपरम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam। mātsyañca gāruḍañcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥparam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्मष्टादश महामुने ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hmaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote>Meaning : 18 Puranas have been seen (given). They include Brahma Purana, Padma purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana. And the others are Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana is the seventh, Agni Purana is the eighth, Bhavishya purana being the ninth. the tenth is Brahma vaivarta Purana, the eleventh is termed Linga Purana. Varaha Purana is the twelfth and Skanda Purana the thirteenth, fourteenth is Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana is termed the fifteenth. Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana come after these. And (eighteen) Upapuranas have been given by rishis along with these Mahapuranas.

=== उपपुराणानि ॥ Upapuranas ===
The Upapuranas are variously given in different texts. However a few are common in all these versions. Upapuranas also describe the legends, vratas and discuss a vast number of topics (such as creation, [[Kala (कालः)|Kala]], [[Dana (दानम्)|Dana]], information on subjects like Dharma and Polity etc) similar to the Puranas.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''अष्टादश उपपुराणानि'''
!S. No.
!स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda purana (4.7.1)<ref name=":022" />
!गरुडपुराणम् ॥ Garuda Purana<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
!देवीभागवतम् ॥ Devibhagavata<ref name=":42222" />
!कूर्मपुराणम् ॥ Kurma Purana<ref>Kurma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1])</ref><ref>Upapurana List from [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Shabdakalpadhurma]</ref>
|-
|1
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|-
|2
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|नरसिंहम्पुराणम् ॥ Narasimha Purana
|-
|3
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|शिवपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Purana
|<nowiki>स्कन्दपुराणम् || Skanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|4
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Dharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|-
|5
|दुर्वासपुराणाम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|नन्दीश्वर ॥ Nandiswara Purana
|मानवपुराणम् ॥ Manava Purana
|दूर्वासपुराणम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|-
|6
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदीयपुराणम् ॥ Naradeeya Purana
|-
|7
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|-
|8
|मनुपुराणम् ॥ Manu Purana
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|-
|9
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|-
|10
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|आदित्यपुराणम् ॥ Aditya Purana
|<nowiki>ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् || Brahmanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|11
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|-
|12
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कल्की / कालिकापुराणम्॥ Kalki / Kalika Purana
|-
|13
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheshwara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|<nowiki>महेश्वरपुराणम् || Maheshwara Purana </nowiki>
|-
|14
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|-
|15
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|-
|16
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|-
|17
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|भागवतपुराणम् ॥ Bhagavata Purana
|मारीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|-
|18
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|भार्गवपुरानम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|वसिष्ठपुराणम् ॥ Vasishta Purana
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|}

Many other Upapuranas are also available such as Ganapatya / Mudgala ( गाणपत्यम् / मुद्गलम्), Vasishta (वासिष्ठम्), Hamsa from other different sources and a total of upto 30 Upapuranas are mentioned, though their availability is not known.<ref name=":42222" /> Thus, we see from the two lists that the names of a few Puranas are the same in both Puranas and Upapuranas (ex: Skanda purana, Vamana purana)

According to a few scholars, "Bhagavata" in Puranas refers to Devibhagavata and not Shrimad Bhagavata containing the stories of SriKrishna.(Page 174 of Sanskrita Sahitya Charitra<ref name=":42222" />). However, it is certain that both are equally valuable and instructive. Devi Bhagavata is specially fitted for those inclined to metaphysics while the Vaishnava Bhagavata endears one with Bhakti.<ref name=":024" />

The Puranas have been highly influential in the development of Bharatiya samskriti. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature) or pertaining to vedas with easy understanding as mentioned by Shivamahapurana <ref name=":022" />.

=== इतिहासः ॥ Itihasas ===
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful epics of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the Maharshi Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref>Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}

==== The Ramayana ====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, Aranyakanda, Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

=== दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras ===
The chaturdasha vidyas mention Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras as part of the the Veda Upangas. In the present context, considering all the Shad darshanas to be part of the veda Upangas, they have been discussed completely in this project.

Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the shastra rachana paddhati or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds - Adibhoutika, Adhyatmika, Adidaivika.

The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
*Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
*Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
*Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information on the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|[[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darshana]]
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika Darshana]]
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya Darshana]]
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|[[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa Darshana]]
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti
Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita : Sri Shankaracharya Vishishtadvaita : Sri Ramanujam
Dvaita : Madhavacharya
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

=== स्मृतिग्रन्थयः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras ===
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":0222">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Dharmasutras Vs Dharmashastras (Smrtis)====
Smrtis, the codified law books, otherwise known as Dharmashastras, are different texts as against the Dharmasutra works (Shrauta Sutras and Dharma Sutras) given in the [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpas]]. Smrti texts have laid emphasis on the karmaushtana on the social front as compared to karmanushtana of an individual. These granthas contain information on the aspects of administration and governance, it may be said that as the number of kingdoms grew, so also the number of Smrti granthas.

Dharmasutras are the basis of composing Dharmashastra granthas. Dharmasutra granthas are cryptic, abbreviated with short explanations of the sutras, hence they required bhashyas or commentaries and tikas for understanding them.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras Contrasted<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. (1962) ''[https://archive.org/details/106533393DharmasutrasAStudyInTheirOriginAndDevelopmentSBanerjiCalcutta1962600dpiLossy/page/n15 Dharmasutras, A Study in their Origin and Development.]'' Calcutta : Punthi Pustak</ref>
!
!Dharmasutras
!Dharmashastras
|-
|Texts
|Part of Kalpa : Ex - Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Baudhayana
|Smrti granthas - Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti
|-
|Form
|Composed in prose intermixed with slokas
|Composed as slokas (metrical form) exclusively
|-
|Language
|Language is प्राचीन (archaic )
|Language is अर्वाचीन (modern)
|-
|Arrangement of topics
|No arrangement into topics is seen though presented in an orderly manner
|Topics are given under distinct heads.
|}

==== Manava Dharmashastra ====
Another point of debate among the scholars is whether the book named Manava-dharmashastra (मनव-धर्मशास्त्रम्) and Manusmrti are one and the same. Both these texts have been authored by Manu, who is considered as the Adipurusha (first in the human race), as per Samhita and Brahmanas. However, the aspects found in Manava-dharmashastra, which are found in other ancient texts, are not to be seen in Manusmrti. Hence is believed by scholars that Manava-dharmashastra and Manusmrti are two different texts and that Manusmrti is founded on the principles given in Manava-dharmashastra.<ref name=":42222" />
====Number of Smritis====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti|Manu Smrti]], Yajnavalkya Smrti (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिः) and Parasara Smrti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.<ref name=":5" />
*Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
*Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
*Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
*Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
*Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, however, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref><blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji,<ref name=":32222" /> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

Swami Sivananda<ref name=":0222" />, mentions that the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":0222" />

== Other Smrti Works ==
Apart from these major texts, other works like Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Dharmashastra Nibandhas like Nirnayasindhu, Dharmasindhu etc, Tamil vedas among other texts have expanded largely for the guidance of people to interpret the various aspects given in above discussed Smrti texts.
=== अनुक्रमणिकाः || Anukramanikas ===
For the protection of Veda mantras Anukramanika granthas (अनुक्रमणिकाग्रन्था-s) have been compiled. These Anukramanikas are lists that contain concise information about the Veda mantra's rishi, chandas and devatas. The most important rishis who contributed to creation of these lists include - Shaunaka (शौनकः), Katyayana (कात्यायनः). Though these Anukramanikas are not included Vedangas, these play an important role in the [[Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)|protection of vedas]].

In Rigveda, the rishi, chandas, devata, anuvaka (अनुवाकः), sukta (अनुवाकः) number, the name and important features are compiled in structured manner, in Anustup chandas (अनुष्टुप् छन्दस्). The phalasiddhi (फलसिद्धिः | benefits) of chanting particular mantras is also explained in detail. Such texts are available for other vedas also (Page 94 and 95 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />).

=== Nibandhanas ===
Kanchi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Paramacharya, explains that some Smrtis do not contain instructions with regard to all observances. The matters explained in one Smrti may not be found in an other, thus giving rise to doubts in acharas which are to be cleared by using the works called "Dharmashastra Nibandhanas". These nibandhanas do not leave out any rite or dharma. Nirnayasindhu (by Kamalakara Bhatta), Vaidyanatha Dikshitiyam, Dharmasindhu are accepted and referred to authoritative texts in the present day.<ref name=":32222" />
== संवादः || Discussion ==
Traditionally, the Chaturdasha vidyas consider Puranas, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharmashastras as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":32222" /> However, due to similarity of names a few questions arise here
# Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras are mentioned under the classification of [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] and as those among the Veda Upangas.
# Dharmasutras are given in Kalpas (as Vedangas) and Dharmashastras are mentioned as one among the Veda Upangas.
What are included in these texts?

Dr. N. Sivasenani of University of Hyderabad, presents a few thoughts about these questions <blockquote>''"Nyaya" should be taken to mean Nyaya-Vaiseshika-Sankhya and Yoga; and Mimamsa covers both Purva- and Uttara-mimamsas. Why should it be so? Based on the context. Further, Puranas include Mahabharata and Ramayana."''</blockquote><blockquote>''"In the Vedanga Kalpas, there are four kinds of Sutras - Shrauta- (dealing with vedic rites), Grhya- (dealing with 16 samskaras)-, Dharma- (dealing with secular matters) and Shulba- sutras. However, of these, Dharmasutras got expanded tremendously. Firstly, there are the eighteen Smritis - like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and so on. Note that this enumeration is a Srmiti-work and not a Sutra-work such as Apastambasutras of Kalpas. Then these have further been expanded by huge commentaries. Further, omnibus volumes of "Nibandhas" came into existence which are a compilation of views of various Smritis and other authorities. Then since Nibandhas grew in volume, condensed manuals combining Srauta-, Grihya- and Dharma- sutra elements like Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu came about. So much so that today, Dharmasindhu is usually the first and last reference when a question of Dharma arises (example: when is Sivaratri this year or who are sapindas). Since this part alone grew in volume, it is listed separately under Dharmashastras."''</blockquote>To summarize
* It can be said that Nyaya and Mimamsa are Upangas (Chaturdasha Vidyas) and Darshana shastras (Shad Darsanas) and based on Vedas. The Dharmasutras of Kalpa Vedanga and the Dharmashastras of Upangas are the same texts. <ref name=":12" />
* Dharmasutras given under Kalpa Vedanga, for example : Apasthamba sutras (आपस्तम्बसूत्र-s) refer mainly to sutra works of dharmas associated with specific shrauta yajnika kriyas (श्रौतयाज्ञिकक्रियाः). These have been hugely expanded into Dharma-shastras (Smritis works), for example : Manu smriti. These refer to dharmas applicable to man in general society.
* While in Kalpas, '''Dharmasutras''' (classified under Vedanga) generally lay down the code of conduct to be followed by a person engaged in vaidika yagna kriyas, '''Dharmashastras''' (classified under Upangas) lay down the general moral code of conduct applicable to every human being. Also Dharmashastras include later day texts combining the different parts of Kalpas, codified into condensed versions as in Dharmasindhu and Nirnayasindhu (निर्णयसिन्धुः).
* Mimamsa is divided into Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa. Purva Mimamsa highlights the discriminating and decision making qualities of the Vedas by analysis. Here, Purva Mimamsa is generally what is considered for the term Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called as Vedanta, which is classified under the Jnanakanda (ज्ञानकाण्डः).
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Puranas]]

File:Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyas.pdf

2019-12-13T04:50:03Z

Megh: Megh uploaded a new version of File:Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyas.pdf

== Summary ==
Courtesy : Prof. Megh Kalyanasundaram
http://tiny.cc/6zolhz

File:Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyas.pdf

2019-12-13T04:49:21Z

Megh: /* Summary */

== Summary ==
Courtesy : Prof. Megh Kalyanasundaram
http://tiny.cc/6zolhz

Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)

2019-12-13T04:48:14Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vaidika Vangmaya (Samskrit : वैदिकवाङ्मयम्) means that literature which is "associated with the Vedas". Vaidika literature includes the ancillary and subsidiary texts associated with the Vedas which have come into existence to clarify and understand the Vedas. Thus over a period of time, different explanatory shastras evolved to explain the subtle concepts presented in Vedas and they are included in under the Smrti literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref>Swami Sivananda, ''All About Hinduism''</ref>

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely spiritual but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth. Understanding vaidika literature itself developed into many branches covering different aspects of the subject. While some have developed independently (such as Jyotisha - to explain muhurtas in vaidika kriyas), others summarize (such as Kalpa which is a manual of procedures of yajnas from different vedas) and a few others are simplified summaries of codes of social existence (like the Puranas in story format, Dharmashastras in a stern format) for a comparatively easier understanding (including the Mahabharata) than the Veda itself. The following headings cover the topics discussed under Vaidika Vangmaya
# [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas]] (6)
# [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|उपवेदाः || Upa-Vedas]] (4)
# वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas (4) which are broadly covered under the following three divisions as discussed in the section below
## [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|पुराणानि || Puranas]] (18), उपपुराणानि || Upa-Puranas (18), [[Itihasa (इतिहासः)|इतिहासः || Itihasa]] (2)
## [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras]] (6)
## [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|स्मृतिग्रन्थाः || Smrti Granthas]] or Dharmashastras (18)
# अन्यग्रन्थाः || Other Smrtigranthas (Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, [[Parishista (परिशिष्टम्)|Parishistas]])
Thus we see that the above literature is a vast body of knowledge which was imparted by the Guru (Acharyas, Preceptors) to his Shishyas (disciples) in the Gurukula System of education which was in practice in ancient days. The disciples of a Guru (belonging to a particular shaka of one of the Four Vedas) were taught a particular shaka of the Veda along with the study of 14 ancillary Vaidika Vangmaya (or Veda associated subject matter) called as Chaturdasha Vidyasthanani and some went further to study 18 ancillary subjects called as Astadasha Vidyasthanani. Vidyasthanas are so called because they formed the core subject matter of [[Vidya (विद्या)]] equated to Education in present day parlance.

== विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas ==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>http://tiny.cc/6zolhz</ref> for they contain the foundational comprehensive knowledge base of the four Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha) the four pillars of [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]]. Chaturdasha Vidyas include the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Chaturvedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda), Shad(ved)angas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotish), and 4 Upangas (Puranas, Nyaya shastra (and Vaiseshika), Mimamsa and Dharmashastra) of Vedas.<ref name=":022223">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
[[File:Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyas.pdf|thumb|Prof. Megh Kalyanasundaram. Chart of Chaturdasha and Ashtadasha Vidyasthanas]]
== वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas ==
The word Anga (अङ्ग) is used in the sense of Upakaraka (उपकारक | useful tool)<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref> with reference to understanding vedajnana or the knowledge of vedas, these six shastras are extremely useful, hence they are called Vedangas. The oldest reference to what constitute the Vedangas is given in Mundakopanishad <blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvēdō yajurvēdaḥ sāmavēdō'tharvavēdaḥ śikṣā kalpō vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chandō jyōtiṣamiti । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)</blockquote>Meaning : Aparavidya include the rigveda, yajurveda, samaveda, atharvaveda (four vedas), siksha, kalpa, vyakaranam, niruktam, chandas, jyothisha (6 angas of vedas). <blockquote>शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि षडेव तु ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṃ niruktaṃ chandasāṃ cayaḥ । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ caiva vedāṅgāni ṣaḍeva tu ॥</blockquote>According to the above shloka, Vedangas are six in number namely '''Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotish'''.<ref>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/vedangas/ Introduction</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
! Subject Dealt With
|-
|<nowiki>1.शिक्षा || </nowiki>[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]]
| Science of phonetics or pronunciation and intonation.
|-
|<nowiki>2.व्याकरणम् || </nowiki>[[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]]
| Science of the grammar of language
|-
|<nowiki>3.निरुक्तम् || </nowiki>[[Nirukta (निरुक्तम्)|Nirukta]]
| Etymology or the science of origin, meaning and explanation of the Vedic words.
|-
|<nowiki>4.छन्दस् || </nowiki>Chandas
| Prosody or science of composition of the hymns like meter, rhyme, पाद (quarter) etc. of the mantras
|-
|<nowiki>5.ज्योतिष् || </nowiki>[[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotisha]]
| Astronomy and astrology mainly directed towards fixing up of auspicious moments for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices
|-
|<nowiki>6.कल्पः || </nowiki>[[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]]
| Science or manual of yagna kriyas or rituals, both Vedic and domestic
|}<blockquote>छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ उच्यते । ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 41) </blockquote><blockquote>शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम् । तस्मात् साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 42) </blockquote><blockquote>chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo'tha ucyate । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam । tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaiva brahmaloke mahīyate ॥</blockquote>In Paniniya Shiksha (पाणिनीयशिक्षा), these six vedangas are described in the above shloka which means - "Chandas forms the feet of the Vedapurusha, while Kalpas are the hands, Jyotish is the eye, Nirukta forms the ears, Shiksha is the nose, while the face (speech) is formed by Vyakarana. Only by studying vedas (Vedapurusha) along with vedangas (different parts) will one attain the brahmaloka".<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Panineeyasiksha] (41 and 42)</ref><ref>Dr. S. Yegnasubramanian, The Vedangas (Organs of the Vedas).http://svbf.org/journal/vol1no3/vedas.pdf </ref>

Vedangas are thus, special shastras to understand the vedic language, meaning and their usage and the karmakanda (कर्मकाण्डः) expounded in Vedas. To discourage digressing distorted interpretations these shastras have been given by the great rishis to streamline the understanding of correct intent of the Vedas.<ref name=":42222" />
== उपवेदाः || Upavedas ==
They are called the subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number one attached to each Veda<ref name=":1">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref><ref>[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/ Introduction to Upavedas]</ref> viz.<blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चैव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्र चतुर्थन्तु विद्या ह्मष्टादशैव ताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvēdō dhanurvēdō gāndharvaścaiva tē trayaḥ । arthaśāstra caturthantu vidyā hmaṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
!Upaveda Name
! Subject Dealt with
! Associated with
|-
|[[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of healthy living including the prevention and cure of diseases
| Rigveda
|-
|[[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]]
|Science of archery, martial arts and warfare
| Yajurveda
|-
|[[Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)]]
|Forms of fine arts like music and dance.
| Samaveda
|-
|[[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]]
|Shastra dealing with finance, economics, politics, statesmanship, public administration
| Atharvaveda
|}Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda (स्थापत्यवेदः | architecture) as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra. Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" />
== वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas ==
Upangas of Vedas include the following four bodies of knowledge namely<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref><ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":32222">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap5.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan </ref>.
# [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]]
# Mimamsa
# [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya shastra]]
# Dharmashastra or Smrti-granthas
According to some scholars,<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref> the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad-Darshanas]] may be classified as Upangas of Vedas. According to Shri. Kishore Mishraji<ref name=":0">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> Pratipadasutra, Anupada, Chandobhasha (Pratisakhya) Dharmashastra, Nyaya and Vaiseshika constitute the six Upangas of Vedas.
=== पुराणानि ॥ Puranas ===
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|right|frameless|680x680px|border]]
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian texts about a wide range of topics particularly legends and traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major devatas such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Mahapuranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas (Minor Puranas), containing over 400,000 verses.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022">[http://www.vcscsd.org/content/balabhavan/18-Puranas.pdf 18 Puranas - English Translation] by Dharmic Scriptures Team</ref> The list of Puranas is given in Padmapurana (6.236.14-17)<ref>Padma Purana (Khanda 6 (Uttara Khanda) Adhyaya 236) in sa.wikisource.org</ref>, Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana (4.7.1), Agni Purana (10.8.3)<ref name=":022" />

The 18 Mahapuranas listed in Vishnu puranam<ref name=":1" /> are as follows<blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते। ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē। brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21)</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21) </blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्त्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम्। वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चैव त्रयोदशम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22)</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivarttaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam। vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcaiva trayōdaśam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22) </blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम्। मात्स्यञ्च गारुडञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततःपरम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam। mātsyañca gāruḍañcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥparam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्मष्टादश महामुने ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hmaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote>Meaning : 18 Puranas have been seen (given). They include Brahma Purana, Padma purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana. And the others are Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana is the seventh, Agni Purana is the eighth, Bhavishya purana being the ninth. the tenth is Brahma vaivarta Purana, the eleventh is termed Linga Purana. Varaha Purana is the twelfth and Skanda Purana the thirteenth, fourteenth is Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana is termed the fifteenth. Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana come after these. And (eighteen) Upapuranas have been given by rishis along with these Mahapuranas.

=== उपपुराणानि ॥ Upapuranas ===
The Upapuranas are variously given in different texts. However a few are common in all these versions. Upapuranas also describe the legends, vratas and discuss a vast number of topics (such as creation, [[Kala (कालः)|Kala]], [[Dana (दानम्)|Dana]], information on subjects like Dharma and Polity etc) similar to the Puranas.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''अष्टादश उपपुराणानि'''
!S. No.
!स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda purana (4.7.1)<ref name=":022" />
!गरुडपुराणम् ॥ Garuda Purana<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
!देवीभागवतम् ॥ Devibhagavata<ref name=":42222" />
!कूर्मपुराणम् ॥ Kurma Purana<ref>Kurma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1])</ref><ref>Upapurana List from [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Shabdakalpadhurma]</ref>
|-
|1
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|-
|2
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|नरसिंहम्पुराणम् ॥ Narasimha Purana
|-
|3
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|शिवपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Purana
|<nowiki>स्कन्दपुराणम् || Skanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|4
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Dharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|-
|5
|दुर्वासपुराणाम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|नन्दीश्वर ॥ Nandiswara Purana
|मानवपुराणम् ॥ Manava Purana
|दूर्वासपुराणम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|-
|6
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदीयपुराणम् ॥ Naradeeya Purana
|-
|7
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|-
|8
|मनुपुराणम् ॥ Manu Purana
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|-
|9
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|-
|10
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|आदित्यपुराणम् ॥ Aditya Purana
|<nowiki>ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् || Brahmanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|11
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|-
|12
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कल्की / कालिकापुराणम्॥ Kalki / Kalika Purana
|-
|13
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheshwara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|<nowiki>महेश्वरपुराणम् || Maheshwara Purana </nowiki>
|-
|14
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|-
|15
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|-
|16
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|-
|17
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|भागवतपुराणम् ॥ Bhagavata Purana
|मारीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|-
|18
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|भार्गवपुरानम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|वसिष्ठपुराणम् ॥ Vasishta Purana
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|}

Many other Upapuranas are also available such as Ganapatya / Mudgala ( गाणपत्यम् / मुद्गलम्), Vasishta (वासिष्ठम्), Hamsa from other different sources and a total of upto 30 Upapuranas are mentioned, though their availability is not known.<ref name=":42222" /> Thus, we see from the two lists that the names of a few Puranas are the same in both Puranas and Upapuranas (ex: Skanda purana, Vamana purana)

According to a few scholars, "Bhagavata" in Puranas refers to Devibhagavata and not Shrimad Bhagavata containing the stories of SriKrishna.(Page 174 of Sanskrita Sahitya Charitra<ref name=":42222" />). However, it is certain that both are equally valuable and instructive. Devi Bhagavata is specially fitted for those inclined to metaphysics while the Vaishnava Bhagavata endears one with Bhakti.<ref name=":024" />

The Puranas have been highly influential in the development of Bharatiya samskriti. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature) or pertaining to vedas with easy understanding as mentioned by Shivamahapurana <ref name=":022" />.

=== इतिहासः ॥ Itihasas ===
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful epics of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the Maharshi Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref>Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}

==== The Ramayana ====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, Aranyakanda, Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

=== दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras ===
The chaturdasha vidyas mention Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras as part of the the Veda Upangas. In the present context, considering all the Shad darshanas to be part of the veda Upangas, they have been discussed completely in this project.

Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the shastra rachana paddhati or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds - Adibhoutika, Adhyatmika, Adidaivika.

The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
*Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
*Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
*Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information on the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|[[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darshana]]
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika Darshana]]
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya Darshana]]
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|[[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa Darshana]]
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti
Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita : Sri Shankaracharya Vishishtadvaita : Sri Ramanujam
Dvaita : Madhavacharya
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

=== स्मृतिग्रन्थयः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras ===
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":0222">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Dharmasutras Vs Dharmashastras (Smrtis)====
Smrtis, the codified law books, otherwise known as Dharmashastras, are different texts as against the Dharmasutra works (Shrauta Sutras and Dharma Sutras) given in the [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpas]]. Smrti texts have laid emphasis on the karmaushtana on the social front as compared to karmanushtana of an individual. These granthas contain information on the aspects of administration and governance, it may be said that as the number of kingdoms grew, so also the number of Smrti granthas.

Dharmasutras are the basis of composing Dharmashastra granthas. Dharmasutra granthas are cryptic, abbreviated with short explanations of the sutras, hence they required bhashyas or commentaries and tikas for understanding them.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras Contrasted<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. (1962) ''[https://archive.org/details/106533393DharmasutrasAStudyInTheirOriginAndDevelopmentSBanerjiCalcutta1962600dpiLossy/page/n15 Dharmasutras, A Study in their Origin and Development.]'' Calcutta : Punthi Pustak</ref>
!
!Dharmasutras
!Dharmashastras
|-
|Texts
|Part of Kalpa : Ex - Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Baudhayana
|Smrti granthas - Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti
|-
|Form
|Composed in prose intermixed with slokas
|Composed as slokas (metrical form) exclusively
|-
|Language
|Language is प्राचीन (archaic )
|Language is अर्वाचीन (modern)
|-
|Arrangement of topics
|No arrangement into topics is seen though presented in an orderly manner
|Topics are given under distinct heads.
|}

==== Manava Dharmashastra ====
Another point of debate among the scholars is whether the book named Manava-dharmashastra (मनव-धर्मशास्त्रम्) and Manusmrti are one and the same. Both these texts have been authored by Manu, who is considered as the Adipurusha (first in the human race), as per Samhita and Brahmanas. However, the aspects found in Manava-dharmashastra, which are found in other ancient texts, are not to be seen in Manusmrti. Hence is believed by scholars that Manava-dharmashastra and Manusmrti are two different texts and that Manusmrti is founded on the principles given in Manava-dharmashastra.<ref name=":42222" />
====Number of Smritis====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti|Manu Smrti]], Yajnavalkya Smrti (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिः) and Parasara Smrti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.<ref name=":5" />
*Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
*Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
*Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
*Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
*Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, however, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref><blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji,<ref name=":32222" /> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

Swami Sivananda<ref name=":0222" />, mentions that the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":0222" />

== Other Smrti Works ==
Apart from these major texts, other works like Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Dharmashastra Nibandhas like Nirnayasindhu, Dharmasindhu etc, Tamil vedas among other texts have expanded largely for the guidance of people to interpret the various aspects given in above discussed Smrti texts.
=== अनुक्रमणिकाः || Anukramanikas ===
For the protection of Veda mantras Anukramanika granthas (अनुक्रमणिकाग्रन्था-s) have been compiled. These Anukramanikas are lists that contain concise information about the Veda mantra's rishi, chandas and devatas. The most important rishis who contributed to creation of these lists include - Shaunaka (शौनकः), Katyayana (कात्यायनः). Though these Anukramanikas are not included Vedangas, these play an important role in the [[Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)|protection of vedas]].

In Rigveda, the rishi, chandas, devata, anuvaka (अनुवाकः), sukta (अनुवाकः) number, the name and important features are compiled in structured manner, in Anustup chandas (अनुष्टुप् छन्दस्). The phalasiddhi (फलसिद्धिः | benefits) of chanting particular mantras is also explained in detail. Such texts are available for other vedas also (Page 94 and 95 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />).

=== Nibandhanas ===
Kanchi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Paramacharya, explains that some Smrtis do not contain instructions with regard to all observances. The matters explained in one Smrti may not be found in an other, thus giving rise to doubts in acharas which are to be cleared by using the works called "Dharmashastra Nibandhanas". These nibandhanas do not leave out any rite or dharma. Nirnayasindhu (by Kamalakara Bhatta), Vaidyanatha Dikshitiyam, Dharmasindhu are accepted and referred to authoritative texts in the present day.<ref name=":32222" />
== संवादः || Discussion ==
Traditionally, the Chaturdasha vidyas consider Puranas, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharmashastras as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":32222" /> However, due to similarity of names a few questions arise here
# Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras are mentioned under the classification of [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] and as those among the Veda Upangas.
# Dharmasutras are given in Kalpas (as Vedangas) and Dharmashastras are mentioned as one among the Veda Upangas.
What are included in these texts?

Dr. N. Sivasenani of University of Hyderabad, presents a few thoughts about these questions <blockquote>''"Nyaya" should be taken to mean Nyaya-Vaiseshika-Sankhya and Yoga; and Mimamsa covers both Purva- and Uttara-mimamsas. Why should it be so? Based on the context. Further, Puranas include Mahabharata and Ramayana."''</blockquote><blockquote>''"In the Vedanga Kalpas, there are four kinds of Sutras - Shrauta- (dealing with vedic rites), Grhya- (dealing with 16 samskaras)-, Dharma- (dealing with secular matters) and Shulba- sutras. However, of these, Dharmasutras got expanded tremendously. Firstly, there are the eighteen Smritis - like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and so on. Note that this enumeration is a Srmiti-work and not a Sutra-work such as Apastambasutras of Kalpas. Then these have further been expanded by huge commentaries. Further, omnibus volumes of "Nibandhas" came into existence which are a compilation of views of various Smritis and other authorities. Then since Nibandhas grew in volume, condensed manuals combining Srauta-, Grihya- and Dharma- sutra elements like Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu came about. So much so that today, Dharmasindhu is usually the first and last reference when a question of Dharma arises (example: when is Sivaratri this year or who are sapindas). Since this part alone grew in volume, it is listed separately under Dharmashastras."''</blockquote>To summarize
* It can be said that Nyaya and Mimamsa are Upangas (Chaturdasha Vidyas) and Darshana shastras (Shad Darsanas) and based on Vedas. The Dharmasutras of Kalpa Vedanga and the Dharmashastras of Upangas are the same texts. <ref name=":12" />
* Dharmasutras given under Kalpa Vedanga, for example : Apasthamba sutras (आपस्तम्बसूत्र-s) refer mainly to sutra works of dharmas associated with specific shrauta yajnika kriyas (श्रौतयाज्ञिकक्रियाः). These have been hugely expanded into Dharma-shastras (Smritis works), for example : Manu smriti. These refer to dharmas applicable to man in general society.
* While in Kalpas, '''Dharmasutras''' (classified under Vedanga) generally lay down the code of conduct to be followed by a person engaged in vaidika yagna kriyas, '''Dharmashastras''' (classified under Upangas) lay down the general moral code of conduct applicable to every human being. Also Dharmashastras include later day texts combining the different parts of Kalpas, codified into condensed versions as in Dharmasindhu and Nirnayasindhu (निर्णयसिन्धुः).
* Mimamsa is divided into Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa. Purva Mimamsa highlights the discriminating and decision making qualities of the Vedas by analysis. Here, Purva Mimamsa is generally what is considered for the term Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called as Vedanta, which is classified under the Jnanakanda (ज्ञानकाण्डः).
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Puranas]]

Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)

2019-05-03T10:13:43Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vaidika Vangmaya (Samskrit : वैदिकवाङ्मयम्) means that literature which is "associated with the Vedas". Vaidika literature includes the ancillary and subsidiary texts associated with the Vedas which have come into existence to clarify and understand the Vedas. Thus over a period of time, different explanatory shastras evolved to explain the subtle concepts presented in Vedas and they are included in under the Smriti literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref>Swami Sivananda, ''All About Hinduism''</ref> The following headings cover the topics discussed under Vaidika Vangmaya
# वेदाङ्गानि || [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]] (6)
# उपवेदाः || [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|Upa-Vedas]] (4)
# वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas (4)
## पुराणानि || Puranas (18), उपपुराणानि || Upa-Puranas (18), इतिहासः || Itihasa (2)
## दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras (6)
## स्मृतिग्रन्थाः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras (18)
# अन्यग्रन्थाः || Other Smrtigranthas (Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Parishistas)
Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely spiritual but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth. Understanding vaidika literature itself developed into many branches covering different aspects of the subject. While some have developed independently (such as Jyotisha - to explain muhurtas in vaidika kriyas), others summarize (such as Kalpa which is a manual of procedures from different vedas) and a few others are simplified (like the Puranas in story format) for easy understanding (including the Mahabharata).
== विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas ==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/843c92_f50e98e77cd64367905b97f1156025af.pdf</ref> as they give comprehensive knowledge of dharma. These include the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Chaturvedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda), Shad(ved)angas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotish), and 4 Upangas (Puranas, Nyaya shastra, Mimamsa and Dharmashastra) of Vedas.<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
=== चतुर्दशविद्याः ॥ Chaturdasha vidyas ===
According to Vachaspatya, '''Nandi Purana''' gives the 14 vidyasthanas as follows<blockquote>वेदादिषु चतुर्दशसु विद्यासु। ताश्च “विद्याश्चतुर्दश प्रोक्ताः क्रमेण तु यथास्थिति। षडङ्गमिश्रितावेदा धर्म्मशास्त्रं पुराणकम्। मीमांमातर्कमपि च एता विद्याश्चतुर्दश | नन्दि पु०।<ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>vedādiṣu caturdaśasu vidyāsu। tāśca "vidyāścaturdaśa proktāḥ krameṇa tu yathāsthiti। ṣaḍaṅgamiśritāvedā dharmmaśāstraṃ purāṇakam। mīmāṃmātarkamapi ca etā vidyāścaturdaśa"| nandi pu।</blockquote>Meaning : Fourteen vidyas are given as - vedas with their 6 angas (अङ्ग-s), dharmashastra, purana, mimamsa (मीमांसा) with tarka (तर्कः).

According to '''Vachaspatya''', <blockquote>पुराणन्यायमीमांसाधर्म्मशास्त्राङ्गमिश्रिताः। वेदाः स्थानानि विद्यानां धर्म्मस्य च चतुर्दश” या० स्मृतौ विद्यास्थानत्वोक्तेस्तासां तथात्वम्।<ref name=":22222" /> (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote><blockquote>purāṇanyāyamīmāṃsādharmmaśāstrāṅgamiśritāḥ। vedāḥ sthānāni vidyānāṃ dharmmasya ca caturdaśa" yā. smṛtau vidyāsthānatvoktestāsāṃ tathātvam। (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote>Summary: Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Dharmashastras combined with vedangas, and vedas form the 14 vidyastanas as given in '''Yagnavalkya Smriti'''.

'''Manusmriti''' also refers to these abodes of knowledge as 14 vidyas as does the '''Mahabharata''' (12.122.31).<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः । पुराणं धमर्शास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुदर्श ॥</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ । purāṇaṃ dhamarśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścatudarśa ॥</blockquote>

=== अष्टादशविद्याः ॥ Ashtadasha vidyas ===
However, Vishnupurana<ref name=":1">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref> enumerates the existence of 18 vidyasthanas by adding Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः), Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः), Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः) and [[Arthashastra]] (अर्थशास्त्रम्) (four Upavedas) to the previously explained 14 vidyasthanas as given in the following shlokas.<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः। पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुर्दश ॥ २८ ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ। purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścaturdaśa ॥ 28 ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेत्यनुक्रमात् । अर्थशास्त्रं परं तस्मात् विद्या ह्यष्टादश स्मृताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvedo dhanurvedo gāndharvaścetyanukramāt । arthaśāstraṃ paraṃ tasmāt vidyā hyaṣṭādaśa smṛtāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>'''Shivamahapurana''' also describes the 14 Vidyas and 18 vidyas as given above. (5.7) <ref name=":022" />
== वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas ==
The word Anga (अङ्ग) is used in the sense of Upakaraka (उपकारक | useful tool)<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref> with reference to understanding vedajnana or the knowledge of vedas, these six shastras are extremely useful, hence they are called Vedangas. The oldest reference to what constitute the Vedangas is given in Mundakopanishad <blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvēdō yajurvēdaḥ sāmavēdō'tharvavēdaḥ śikṣā kalpō vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chandō jyōtiṣamiti । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)</blockquote>Meaning : Aparavidya include the rigveda, yajurveda, samaveda, atharvaveda (four vedas), siksha, kalpa, vyakaranam, niruktam, chandas, jyothisha (6 angas of vedas). <blockquote>शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि षडेव तु ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṃ niruktaṃ chandasāṃ cayaḥ । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ caiva vedāṅgāni ṣaḍeva tu ॥</blockquote>According to the above shloka, Vedangas are six in number namely '''Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotish'''.<ref>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/vedangas/ Introduction</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
! Subject Dealt With
|-
|<nowiki>1.शिक्षा || </nowiki>[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]]
| Science of phonetics or pronunciation and intonation.
|-
|<nowiki>2.व्याकरणम् || </nowiki>[[Vyākaraṇa|Vyakarana]]
| Science of the grammar of language
|-
|<nowiki>3.निरुक्तम् || </nowiki>[[Nirukta]]
| Etymology or the science of origin, meaning and explanation of the Vedic words.
|-
|<nowiki>4.छन्दस् || </nowiki>Chandas
| Prosody or science of composition of the hymns like meter, rhyme, पाद (quarter) etc. of the mantras
|-
|<nowiki>5.ज्योतिष् || </nowiki>[[Jyotisha]]
| Astronomy and astrology mainly directed towards fixing up of auspicious moments for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices
|-
|<nowiki>6.कल्पः || </nowiki>[[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kalpa]]
| Science or manual of yagna kriyas or rituals, both Vedic and domestic
|}<blockquote>छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ उच्यते । ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 41) </blockquote><blockquote>शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम् । तस्मात् साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 42) </blockquote><blockquote>chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo'tha ucyate । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam । tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaiva brahmaloke mahīyate ॥</blockquote>In Paniniya Shiksha (पाणिनीयशिक्षा), these six vedangas are described in the above shloka which means - "Chandas forms the feet of the Vedapurusha, while Kalpas are the hands, Jyotish is the eye, Nirukta forms the ears, Shiksha is the nose, while the face (speech) is formed by Vyakarana. Only by studying vedas (Vedapurusha) along with vedangas (different parts) will one attain the brahmaloka".<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Panineeyasiksha] (41 and 42)</ref><ref>Dr. S. Yegnasubramanian, The Vedangas (Organs of the Vedas).http://svbf.org/journal/vol1no3/vedas.pdf </ref>

Vedangas are thus, special shastras to understand the vedic language, meaning and their usage and the karmakanda (कर्मकाण्डः) expounded in Vedas. To discourage digressing distorted interpretations these shastras have been given by the great rishis to streamline the understanding of correct intent of the Vedas.<ref name=":42222" />
== उपवेदाः || Upavedas ==
They are called the subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number one attached to each Veda<ref name=":1" /><ref>[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/ Introduction to Upavedas]</ref> viz.<blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चैव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्र चतुर्थन्तु विद्या ह्मष्टादशैव ताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvēdō dhanurvēdō gāndharvaścaiva tē trayaḥ । arthaśāstra caturthantu vidyā hmaṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
!Upaveda Name
! Subject Dealt with
! Associated with
|-
|Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)
|Science of healthy living including the prevention and cure of diseases
| Rigveda
|-
|Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)
|Science of archery, martial arts and warfare
| Yajurveda
|-
|Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)
|Forms of fine arts like music and dance.
| Samaveda
|-
|Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)
|Shastra dealing with finance, economics, politics, statesmanship, public administration
| Atharvaveda
|}Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda (स्थापत्यवेदः | architecture) as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra. Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" />
== वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas ==
Upangas of Vedas include the following four bodies of knowledge namely<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":22222" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":32222">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap5.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan </ref>.
# Puranas
# Mimamsa
# [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya shastra]]
# Dharmashastra or Smrti-granthas
According to some scholars,<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref> the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad-Darshanas]] may be classified as Upangas of Vedas. According to Shri. Kishore Mishraji<ref name=":0">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> Pratipadasutra, Anupada, Chandobhasha (Pratisakhya) Dharmashastra, Nyaya and Vaiseshika constitute the six Upangas of Vedas.
=== पुराणानि ॥ Puranas ===
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|right|frameless|680x680px|border]]
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian texts about a wide range of topics particularly legends and traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major devatas such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Mahapuranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas (Minor Puranas), containing over 400,000 verses.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022">[http://www.vcscsd.org/content/balabhavan/18-Puranas.pdf 18 Puranas - English Translation] by Dharmic Scriptures Team</ref> The list of Puranas is given in Padmapurana (2.3.5), Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana (4.7.1), Agni Purana (10.8.3)<ref name=":022" />

The 18 Mahapuranas listed in Vishnu puranam<ref name=":1" /> are as follows<blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते। ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē। brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21)</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21) </blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्त्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम्। वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चैव त्रयोदशम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22)</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivarttaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam। vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcaiva trayōdaśam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22) </blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम्। मात्स्यञ्च गारुडञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततःपरम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam। mātsyañca gāruḍañcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥparam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्मष्टादश महामुने ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hmaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote>Meaning : 18 Puranas have been seen (given). They include Brahma Purana, Padma purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana. And the others are Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana is the seventh, Agni Purana is the eighth, Bhavishya purana being the ninth. the tenth is Brahma vaivarta Purana, the eleventh is termed Linga Purana. Varaha Purana is the twelfth and Skanda Purana the thirteenth, fourteenth is Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana is termed the fifteenth. Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana come after these. And (eighteen) Upapuranas have been given by rishis along with these Mahapuranas.

=== उपपुराणानि ॥ Upapuranas ===
The Upapuranas are variously given in different texts. However a few are common in all these versions. Upapuranas also describe the legends, vratas and discuss a vast number of topics (such as creation, [[Kala (काल) : Time Factor|Kala (Time)]], [[Dana (दानम्)|Dana]], information on subjects like Dharma and Polity etc) similar to the Puranas.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''अष्टादश उपपुराणानि'''
!S. No.
!स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda purana (4.7.1)<ref name=":022" />
!गरुडपुराणम् ॥ Garuda Purana<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
!देवीभागवतम् ॥ Devibhagavata<ref name=":42222" />
!कूर्मपुराणम् ॥ Kurma Purana<ref>Kurma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1])</ref><ref>Upapurana List from [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Shabdakalpadhurma]</ref>
|-
|1
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|-
|2
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|नरसिंहम्पुराणम् ॥ Narasimha Purana
|-
|3
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|शिवपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Purana
|<nowiki>स्कन्दपुराणम् || Skanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|4
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Dharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|-
|5
|दुर्वासपुराणाम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|नन्दीश्वर ॥ Nandiswara Purana
|मानवपुराणम् ॥ Manava Purana
|दूर्वासपुराणम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|-
|6
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदीयपुराणम् ॥ Naradeeya Purana
|-
|7
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|-
|8
|मनुपुराणम् ॥ Manu Purana
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|-
|9
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|-
|10
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|आदित्यपुराणम् ॥ Aditya Purana
|<nowiki>ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् || Brahmanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|11
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|-
|12
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कल्की / कालिकापुराणम्॥ Kalki / Kalika Purana
|-
|13
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheshwara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|<nowiki>महेश्वरपुराणम् || Maheshwara Purana </nowiki>
|-
|14
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|-
|15
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|-
|16
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|-
|17
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|भागवतपुराणम् ॥ Bhagavata Purana
|मारीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|-
|18
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|भार्गवपुरानम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|वसिष्ठपुराणम् ॥ Vasishta Purana
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|}

Many other Upapuranas are also available such as Ganapatya / Mudgala ( गाणपत्यम् / मुद्गलम्), Vasishta (वासिष्ठम्), Hamsa from other different sources and a total of upto 30 Upapuranas are mentioned, though their availability is not known.<ref name=":42222" /> Thus, we see from the two lists that the names of a few Puranas are the same in both Puranas and Upapuranas (ex: Skanda purana, Vamana purana)

According to a few scholars, "Bhagavata" in Puranas refers to Devibhagavata and not Shrimad Bhagavata containing the stories of SriKrishna.(Page 174 of Sanskrita Sahitya Charitra<ref name=":42222" />). However, it is certain that both are equally valuable and instructive. Devi Bhagavata is specially fitted for those inclined to metaphysics while the Vaishnava Bhagavata endears one with Bhakti.<ref name=":024" />

The Puranas have been highly influential in the development of Bharatiya samskriti. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature) or pertaining to vedas with easy understanding as mentioned by Shivamahapurana <ref name=":022" />.

=== इतिहासः ॥ Itihasas ===
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful epics of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the Maharshi Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref>Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}

==== The Ramayana ====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, Aranyakanda, Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

=== दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras ===
The chaturdasha vidyas mention Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras as part of the the Veda Upangas. In the present context, considering all the Shad darshanas to be part of the veda Upangas, they have been discussed completely in this project.

Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the shastra rachana paddhati or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds - Adibhoutika, Adhyatmika, Adidaivika.

The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
*Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
*Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
*Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information on the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|[[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darshana]]
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika Darshana]]
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya Darshana]]
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|[[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa Darshana]]
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti
Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita : Sri Shankaracharya Vishishtadvaita : Sri Ramanujam
Dvaita : Madhavacharya
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

=== स्मृतिग्रन्थयः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras ===
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":0222">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Dharmasutras Vs Dharmashastras (Smrtis)====
Smrtis, the codified law books, otherwise known as Dharmashastras, are different texts as against the Dharmasutra works (Shrauta Sutras and Dharma Sutras) given in the Kalpas. Smrti texts have laid emphasis on the karmaushtana on the social front as compared to karmanushtana of an individual. These granthas contain information on the aspects of administration and governance, it may be said that as the number of kingdoms grew, so also the number of Smrti granthas.

Dharmasutras are the basis of composing Dharmashastra granthas. Dharmasutra granthas are cryptic, abbreviated with short explanations of the sutras, hence they required bhashyas or commentaries and tikas for understanding them.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras Contrasted<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. (1962) ''[https://archive.org/details/106533393DharmasutrasAStudyInTheirOriginAndDevelopmentSBanerjiCalcutta1962600dpiLossy/page/n15 Dharmasutras, A Study in their Origin and Development.]'' Calcutta : Punthi Pustak</ref>
!
!Dharmasutras
!Dharmashastras
|-
|Texts
|Part of Kalpa : Ex - Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Baudhayana
|Smrti granthas - Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti
|-
|Form
|Composed in prose intermixed with slokas
|Composed as slokas (metrical form) exclusively
|-
|Language
|Language is प्राचीन (archaic )
|Language is अर्वाचीन (modern)
|-
|Arrangement of topics
|No arrangement into topics is seen though presented in an orderly manner
|Topics are given under distinct heads.
|}

==== Manava Dharmashastra ====
Another point of debate among the scholars is whether the book named Manava-dharmashastra (मनव-धर्मशास्त्रम्) and Manusmrti are one and the same. Both these texts have been authored by Manu, who is considered as the Adipurusha (first in the human race), as per Samhita and Brahmanas. However, the aspects found in Manava-dharmashastra, which are found in other ancient texts, are not to be seen in Manusmrti. Hence is believed by scholars that Manava-dharmashastra and Manusmrti are two different texts and that Manusmrti is founded on the principles given in Manava-dharmashastra.<ref name=":42222" />
====Number of Smritis====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti|Manu Smrti]], Yajnavalkya Smrti (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिः) and Parasara Smrti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.<ref name=":5" />
*Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
*Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
*Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
*Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
*Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, however, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref><blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji,<ref name=":32222" /> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

Swami Sivananda<ref name=":0222" />, mentions that the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":0222" />

== Other Smrti Works ==
Apart from these major texts, other works like Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Dharmashastra Nibandhas like Nirnayasindhu, Dharmasindhu etc, Tamil vedas among other texts have expanded largely for the guidance of people to interpret the various aspects given in above discussed Smrti texts.
=== अनुक्रमणिकाः || Anukramanikas ===
For the protection of Veda mantras Anukramanika granthas (अनुक्रमणिकाग्रन्था-s) have been compiled. These Anukramanikas are lists that contain concise information about the Veda mantra's rishi, chandas and devatas. The most important rishis who contributed to creation of these lists include - Shaunaka (शौनकः), Katyayana (कात्यायनः). Though these Anukramanikas are not included Vedangas, these play an important role in the [[Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)|protection of vedas]].

In Rigveda, the rishi, chandas, devata, anuvaka (अनुवाकः), sukta (अनुवाकः) number, the name and important features are compiled in structured manner, in Anustup chandas (अनुष्टुप् छन्दस्). The phalasiddhi (फलसिद्धिः | benefits) of chanting particular mantras is also explained in detail. Such texts are available for other vedas also (Page 94 and 95 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />).

=== Nibandhanas ===
Kanchi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Paramacharya, explains that some Smrtis do not contain instructions with regard to all observances. The matters explained in one Smrti may not be found in an other, thus giving rise to doubts in acharas which are to be cleared by using the works called "Dharmashastra Nibandhanas". These nibandhanas do not leave out any rite or dharma. Nirnayasindhu (by Kamalakara Bhatta), Vaidyanatha Dikshitiyam, Dharmasindhu are accepted and referred to authoritative texts in the present day.<ref name=":32222" />
== संवादः || Discussion ==
Traditionally, the Chaturdasha vidyas consider Puranas, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharmashastras as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":32222" /> However, due to similarity of names a few questions arise here
# Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras are mentioned under the classification of [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] and as those among the Veda Upangas.
# Dharmasutras are given in Kalpas (as Vedangas) and Dharmashastras are mentioned as one among the Veda Upangas.
What are included in these texts?

Dr. N. Sivasenani of University of Hyderabad, presents a few thoughts about these questions <blockquote>''"Nyaya" should be taken to mean Nyaya-Vaiseshika-Sankhya and Yoga; and Mimamsa covers both Purva- and Uttara-mimamsas. Why should it be so? Based on the context. Further, Puranas include Mahabharata and Ramayana."''</blockquote><blockquote>''"In the Vedanga Kalpas, there are four kinds of Sutras - Shrauta- (dealing with vedic rites), Grhya- (dealing with 16 samskaras)-, Dharma- (dealing with secular matters) and Shulba- sutras. However, of these, Dharmasutras got expanded tremendously. Firstly, there are the eighteen Smritis - like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and so on. Note that this enumeration is a Srmiti-work and not a Sutra-work such as Apastambasutras of Kalpas. Then these have further been expanded by huge commentaries. Further, omnibus volumes of "Nibandhas" came into existence which are a compilation of views of various Smritis and other authorities. Then since Nibandhas grew in volume, condensed manuals combining Srauta-, Grihya- and Dharma- sutra elements like Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu came about. So much so that today, Dharmasindhu is usually the first and last reference when a question of Dharma arises (example: when is Sivaratri this year or who are sapindas). Since this part alone grew in volume, it is listed separately under Dharmashastras."''</blockquote>To summarize
* It can be said that Nyaya and Mimamsa are Upangas (Chaturdasha Vidyas) and Darshana shastras (Shad Darsanas) and based on Vedas. The Dharmasutras of Kalpa Vedanga and the Dharmashastras of Upangas are the same texts. <ref name=":12" />
* Dharmasutras given under Kalpa Vedanga, for example : Apasthamba sutras (आपस्तम्बसूत्र-s) refer mainly to sutra works of dharmas associated with specific shrauta yajnika kriyas (श्रौतयाज्ञिकक्रियाः). These have been hugely expanded into Dharma-shastras (Smritis works), for example : Manu smriti. These refer to dharmas applicable to man in general society.
* While in Kalpas, '''Dharmasutras''' (classified under Vedanga) generally lay down the code of conduct to be followed by a person engaged in vaidika yagna kriyas, '''Dharmashastras''' (classified under Upangas) lay down the general moral code of conduct applicable to every human being. Also Dharmashastras include later day texts combining the different parts of Kalpas, codified into condensed versions as in Dharmasindhu and Nirnayasindhu (निर्णयसिन्धुः).
* Mimamsa is divided into Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa. Purva Mimamsa highlights the discriminating and decision making qualities of the Vedas by analysis. Here, Purva Mimamsa is generally what is considered for the term Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called as Vedanta, which is classified under the Jnanakanda (ज्ञानकाण्डः).
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Puranas]]

Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)

2019-05-03T10:11:54Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vaidika Vangmaya (Samskrit : वैदिकवाङ्मयम्) means that literature which is "associated with the Vedas". Vaidika literature includes the ancillary and subsidiary texts associated with the Vedas which have come into existence to clarify and understand the Vedas. Thus over a period of time, different explanatory shastras evolved to explain the subtle concepts presented in Vedas and they are included in under the Smriti literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref>Swami Sivananda, ''All About Hinduism''</ref> The following headings cover the topics discussed under Vaidika Vangmaya
# वेदाङ्गानि || [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]] (6)
# उपवेदाः || [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|Upa-Vedas]] (4)
# वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas (4)
## पुराणानि || Puranas (18), उपपुराणानि || Upa-Puranas (18), इतिहासः || Itihasa (2)
## दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras (6)
## स्मृतिग्रन्थाः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras (18)
# अन्यग्रन्थाः || Other Smrtigranthas (Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Parishistas)
Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely spiritual but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth. Understanding vaidika literature itself developed into many branches covering different aspects of the subject. While some have developed independently (such as Jyotisha - to explain muhurtas in vaidika kriyas), others summarize (such as Kalpa which is a manual of procedures from different vedas) and a few others are simplified (like the Puranas in story format) for easy understanding (including the Mahabharata).
== विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas ==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref><nowiki>https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/843c92_f50e98e77cd64367905b97f1156025af.pdf</nowiki></ref> as they give comprehensive knowledge of dharma. These include the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Chaturvedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda), Shad(ved)angas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotish), and 4 Upangas (Puranas, Nyaya shastra, Mimamsa and Dharmashastra) of Vedas.<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
=== चतुर्दशविद्याः ॥ Chaturdasha vidyas ===
According to Vachaspatya, '''Nandi Purana''' gives the 14 vidyasthanas as follows<blockquote>वेदादिषु चतुर्दशसु विद्यासु। ताश्च “विद्याश्चतुर्दश प्रोक्ताः क्रमेण तु यथास्थिति। षडङ्गमिश्रितावेदा धर्म्मशास्त्रं पुराणकम्। मीमांमातर्कमपि च एता विद्याश्चतुर्दश | नन्दि पु०।<ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>vedādiṣu caturdaśasu vidyāsu। tāśca "vidyāścaturdaśa proktāḥ krameṇa tu yathāsthiti। ṣaḍaṅgamiśritāvedā dharmmaśāstraṃ purāṇakam। mīmāṃmātarkamapi ca etā vidyāścaturdaśa"| nandi pu।</blockquote>Meaning : Fourteen vidyas are given as - vedas with their 6 angas (अङ्ग-s), dharmashastra, purana, mimamsa (मीमांसा) with tarka (तर्कः).

According to '''Vachaspatya''', <blockquote>पुराणन्यायमीमांसाधर्म्मशास्त्राङ्गमिश्रिताः। वेदाः स्थानानि विद्यानां धर्म्मस्य च चतुर्दश” या० स्मृतौ विद्यास्थानत्वोक्तेस्तासां तथात्वम्।<ref name=":22222" /> (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote><blockquote>purāṇanyāyamīmāṃsādharmmaśāstrāṅgamiśritāḥ। vedāḥ sthānāni vidyānāṃ dharmmasya ca caturdaśa" yā. smṛtau vidyāsthānatvoktestāsāṃ tathātvam। (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote>Summary: Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Dharmashastras combined with vedangas, and vedas form the 14 vidyastanas as given in '''Yagnavalkya Smriti'''.

'''Manusmriti''' also refers to these abodes of knowledge as 14 vidyas as does the '''Mahabharata''' (12.122.31).<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः । पुराणं धमर्शास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुदर्श ॥</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ । purāṇaṃ dhamarśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścatudarśa ॥</blockquote>

=== अष्टादशविद्याः ॥ Ashtadasha vidyas ===
However, Vishnupurana<ref name=":1">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref> enumerates the existence of 18 vidyasthanas by adding Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः), Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः), Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः) and [[Arthashastra]] (अर्थशास्त्रम्) (four Upavedas) to the previously explained 14 vidyasthanas as given in the following shlokas.<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः। पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुर्दश ॥ २८ ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ। purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścaturdaśa ॥ 28 ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेत्यनुक्रमात् । अर्थशास्त्रं परं तस्मात् विद्या ह्यष्टादश स्मृताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvedo dhanurvedo gāndharvaścetyanukramāt । arthaśāstraṃ paraṃ tasmāt vidyā hyaṣṭādaśa smṛtāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>'''Shivamahapurana''' also describes the 14 Vidyas and 18 vidyas as given above. (5.7) <ref name=":022" />
== वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas ==
The word Anga (अङ्ग) is used in the sense of Upakaraka (उपकारक | useful tool)<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref> with reference to understanding vedajnana or the knowledge of vedas, these six shastras are extremely useful, hence they are called Vedangas. The oldest reference to what constitute the Vedangas is given in Mundakopanishad <blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvēdō yajurvēdaḥ sāmavēdō'tharvavēdaḥ śikṣā kalpō vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chandō jyōtiṣamiti । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)</blockquote>Meaning : Aparavidya include the rigveda, yajurveda, samaveda, atharvaveda (four vedas), siksha, kalpa, vyakaranam, niruktam, chandas, jyothisha (6 angas of vedas). <blockquote>शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि षडेव तु ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṃ niruktaṃ chandasāṃ cayaḥ । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ caiva vedāṅgāni ṣaḍeva tu ॥</blockquote>According to the above shloka, Vedangas are six in number namely '''Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotish'''.<ref>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/vedangas/ Introduction</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
! Subject Dealt With
|-
|<nowiki>1.शिक्षा || </nowiki>[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]]
| Science of phonetics or pronunciation and intonation.
|-
|<nowiki>2.व्याकरणम् || </nowiki>[[Vyākaraṇa|Vyakarana]]
| Science of the grammar of language
|-
|<nowiki>3.निरुक्तम् || </nowiki>[[Nirukta]]
| Etymology or the science of origin, meaning and explanation of the Vedic words.
|-
|<nowiki>4.छन्दस् || </nowiki>Chandas
| Prosody or science of composition of the hymns like meter, rhyme, पाद (quarter) etc. of the mantras
|-
|<nowiki>5.ज्योतिष् || </nowiki>[[Jyotisha]]
| Astronomy and astrology mainly directed towards fixing up of auspicious moments for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices
|-
|<nowiki>6.कल्पः || </nowiki>[[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kalpa]]
| Science or manual of yagna kriyas or rituals, both Vedic and domestic
|}<blockquote>छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ उच्यते । ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 41) </blockquote><blockquote>शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम् । तस्मात् साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 42) </blockquote><blockquote>chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo'tha ucyate । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam । tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaiva brahmaloke mahīyate ॥</blockquote>In Paniniya Shiksha (पाणिनीयशिक्षा), these six vedangas are described in the above shloka which means - "Chandas forms the feet of the Vedapurusha, while Kalpas are the hands, Jyotish is the eye, Nirukta forms the ears, Shiksha is the nose, while the face (speech) is formed by Vyakarana. Only by studying vedas (Vedapurusha) along with vedangas (different parts) will one attain the brahmaloka".<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Panineeyasiksha] (41 and 42)</ref><ref>Dr. S. Yegnasubramanian, The Vedangas (Organs of the Vedas).http://svbf.org/journal/vol1no3/vedas.pdf </ref>

Vedangas are thus, special shastras to understand the vedic language, meaning and their usage and the karmakanda (कर्मकाण्डः) expounded in Vedas. To discourage digressing distorted interpretations these shastras have been given by the great rishis to streamline the understanding of correct intent of the Vedas.<ref name=":42222" />
== उपवेदाः || Upavedas ==
They are called the subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number one attached to each Veda<ref name=":1" /><ref>[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/ Introduction to Upavedas]</ref> viz.<blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चैव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्र चतुर्थन्तु विद्या ह्मष्टादशैव ताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvēdō dhanurvēdō gāndharvaścaiva tē trayaḥ । arthaśāstra caturthantu vidyā hmaṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
!Upaveda Name
! Subject Dealt with
! Associated with
|-
|Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)
|Science of healthy living including the prevention and cure of diseases
| Rigveda
|-
|Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)
|Science of archery, martial arts and warfare
| Yajurveda
|-
|Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)
|Forms of fine arts like music and dance.
| Samaveda
|-
|Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)
|Shastra dealing with finance, economics, politics, statesmanship, public administration
| Atharvaveda
|}Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda (स्थापत्यवेदः | architecture) as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra. Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" />
== वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas ==
Upangas of Vedas include the following four bodies of knowledge namely<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":22222" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":32222">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap5.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan </ref>.
# Puranas
# Mimamsa
# [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya shastra]]
# Dharmashastra or Smrti-granthas
According to some scholars,<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref> the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad-Darshanas]] may be classified as Upangas of Vedas. According to Shri. Kishore Mishraji<ref name=":0">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> Pratipadasutra, Anupada, Chandobhasha (Pratisakhya) Dharmashastra, Nyaya and Vaiseshika constitute the six Upangas of Vedas.
=== पुराणानि ॥ Puranas ===
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|right|frameless|680x680px|border]]
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian texts about a wide range of topics particularly legends and traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major devatas such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Mahapuranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas (Minor Puranas), containing over 400,000 verses.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022">[http://www.vcscsd.org/content/balabhavan/18-Puranas.pdf 18 Puranas - English Translation] by Dharmic Scriptures Team</ref> The list of Puranas is given in Padmapurana (2.3.5), Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana (4.7.1), Agni Purana (10.8.3)<ref name=":022" />

The 18 Mahapuranas listed in Vishnu puranam<ref name=":1" /> are as follows<blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते। ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē। brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21)</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21) </blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्त्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम्। वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चैव त्रयोदशम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22)</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivarttaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam। vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcaiva trayōdaśam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22) </blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम्। मात्स्यञ्च गारुडञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततःपरम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam। mātsyañca gāruḍañcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥparam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्मष्टादश महामुने ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hmaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote>Meaning : 18 Puranas have been seen (given). They include Brahma Purana, Padma purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana. And the others are Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana is the seventh, Agni Purana is the eighth, Bhavishya purana being the ninth. the tenth is Brahma vaivarta Purana, the eleventh is termed Linga Purana. Varaha Purana is the twelfth and Skanda Purana the thirteenth, fourteenth is Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana is termed the fifteenth. Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana come after these. And (eighteen) Upapuranas have been given by rishis along with these Mahapuranas.

=== उपपुराणानि ॥ Upapuranas ===
The Upapuranas are variously given in different texts. However a few are common in all these versions. Upapuranas also describe the legends, vratas and discuss a vast number of topics (such as creation, [[Kala (काल) : Time Factor|Kala (Time)]], [[Dana (दानम्)|Dana]], information on subjects like Dharma and Polity etc) similar to the Puranas.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''अष्टादश उपपुराणानि'''
!S. No.
!स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda purana (4.7.1)<ref name=":022" />
!गरुडपुराणम् ॥ Garuda Purana<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
!देवीभागवतम् ॥ Devibhagavata<ref name=":42222" />
!कूर्मपुराणम् ॥ Kurma Purana<ref>Kurma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1])</ref><ref>Upapurana List from [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Shabdakalpadhurma]</ref>
|-
|1
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|-
|2
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|नरसिंहम्पुराणम् ॥ Narasimha Purana
|-
|3
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|शिवपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Purana
|<nowiki>स्कन्दपुराणम् || Skanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|4
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Dharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|-
|5
|दुर्वासपुराणाम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|नन्दीश्वर ॥ Nandiswara Purana
|मानवपुराणम् ॥ Manava Purana
|दूर्वासपुराणम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|-
|6
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदीयपुराणम् ॥ Naradeeya Purana
|-
|7
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|-
|8
|मनुपुराणम् ॥ Manu Purana
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|-
|9
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|-
|10
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|आदित्यपुराणम् ॥ Aditya Purana
|<nowiki>ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् || Brahmanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|11
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|-
|12
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कल्की / कालिकापुराणम्॥ Kalki / Kalika Purana
|-
|13
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheshwara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|<nowiki>महेश्वरपुराणम् || Maheshwara Purana </nowiki>
|-
|14
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|-
|15
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|-
|16
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|-
|17
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|भागवतपुराणम् ॥ Bhagavata Purana
|मारीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|-
|18
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|भार्गवपुरानम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|वसिष्ठपुराणम् ॥ Vasishta Purana
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|}

Many other Upapuranas are also available such as Ganapatya / Mudgala ( गाणपत्यम् / मुद्गलम्), Vasishta (वासिष्ठम्), Hamsa from other different sources and a total of upto 30 Upapuranas are mentioned, though their availability is not known.<ref name=":42222" /> Thus, we see from the two lists that the names of a few Puranas are the same in both Puranas and Upapuranas (ex: Skanda purana, Vamana purana)

According to a few scholars, "Bhagavata" in Puranas refers to Devibhagavata and not Shrimad Bhagavata containing the stories of SriKrishna.(Page 174 of Sanskrita Sahitya Charitra<ref name=":42222" />). However, it is certain that both are equally valuable and instructive. Devi Bhagavata is specially fitted for those inclined to metaphysics while the Vaishnava Bhagavata endears one with Bhakti.<ref name=":024" />

The Puranas have been highly influential in the development of Bharatiya samskriti. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature) or pertaining to vedas with easy understanding as mentioned by Shivamahapurana <ref name=":022" />.

=== इतिहासः ॥ Itihasas ===
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful epics of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the Maharshi Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref>Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}

==== The Ramayana ====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, Aranyakanda, Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

=== दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras ===
The chaturdasha vidyas mention Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras as part of the the Veda Upangas. In the present context, considering all the Shad darshanas to be part of the veda Upangas, they have been discussed completely in this project.

Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the shastra rachana paddhati or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds - Adibhoutika, Adhyatmika, Adidaivika.

The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
*Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
*Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
*Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information on the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|[[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darshana]]
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika Darshana]]
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya Darshana]]
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|[[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa Darshana]]
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti
Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita : Sri Shankaracharya Vishishtadvaita : Sri Ramanujam
Dvaita : Madhavacharya
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

=== स्मृतिग्रन्थयः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras ===
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":0222">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Dharmasutras Vs Dharmashastras (Smrtis)====
Smrtis, the codified law books, otherwise known as Dharmashastras, are different texts as against the Dharmasutra works (Shrauta Sutras and Dharma Sutras) given in the Kalpas. Smrti texts have laid emphasis on the karmaushtana on the social front as compared to karmanushtana of an individual. These granthas contain information on the aspects of administration and governance, it may be said that as the number of kingdoms grew, so also the number of Smrti granthas.

Dharmasutras are the basis of composing Dharmashastra granthas. Dharmasutra granthas are cryptic, abbreviated with short explanations of the sutras, hence they required bhashyas or commentaries and tikas for understanding them.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras Contrasted<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. (1962) ''[https://archive.org/details/106533393DharmasutrasAStudyInTheirOriginAndDevelopmentSBanerjiCalcutta1962600dpiLossy/page/n15 Dharmasutras, A Study in their Origin and Development.]'' Calcutta : Punthi Pustak</ref>
!
!Dharmasutras
!Dharmashastras
|-
|Texts
|Part of Kalpa : Ex - Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Baudhayana
|Smrti granthas - Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti
|-
|Form
|Composed in prose intermixed with slokas
|Composed as slokas (metrical form) exclusively
|-
|Language
|Language is प्राचीन (archaic )
|Language is अर्वाचीन (modern)
|-
|Arrangement of topics
|No arrangement into topics is seen though presented in an orderly manner
|Topics are given under distinct heads.
|}

==== Manava Dharmashastra ====
Another point of debate among the scholars is whether the book named Manava-dharmashastra (मनव-धर्मशास्त्रम्) and Manusmrti are one and the same. Both these texts have been authored by Manu, who is considered as the Adipurusha (first in the human race), as per Samhita and Brahmanas. However, the aspects found in Manava-dharmashastra, which are found in other ancient texts, are not to be seen in Manusmrti. Hence is believed by scholars that Manava-dharmashastra and Manusmrti are two different texts and that Manusmrti is founded on the principles given in Manava-dharmashastra.<ref name=":42222" />
====Number of Smritis====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti|Manu Smrti]], Yajnavalkya Smrti (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिः) and Parasara Smrti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.<ref name=":5" />
*Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
*Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
*Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
*Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
*Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, however, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref><blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji,<ref name=":32222" /> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

Swami Sivananda<ref name=":0222" />, mentions that the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":0222" />

== Other Smrti Works ==
Apart from these major texts, other works like Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Dharmashastra Nibandhas like Nirnayasindhu, Dharmasindhu etc, Tamil vedas among other texts have expanded largely for the guidance of people to interpret the various aspects given in above discussed Smrti texts.
=== अनुक्रमणिकाः || Anukramanikas ===
For the protection of Veda mantras Anukramanika granthas (अनुक्रमणिकाग्रन्था-s) have been compiled. These Anukramanikas are lists that contain concise information about the Veda mantra's rishi, chandas and devatas. The most important rishis who contributed to creation of these lists include - Shaunaka (शौनकः), Katyayana (कात्यायनः). Though these Anukramanikas are not included Vedangas, these play an important role in the [[Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)|protection of vedas]].

In Rigveda, the rishi, chandas, devata, anuvaka (अनुवाकः), sukta (अनुवाकः) number, the name and important features are compiled in structured manner, in Anustup chandas (अनुष्टुप् छन्दस्). The phalasiddhi (फलसिद्धिः | benefits) of chanting particular mantras is also explained in detail. Such texts are available for other vedas also (Page 94 and 95 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />).

=== Nibandhanas ===
Kanchi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Paramacharya, explains that some Smrtis do not contain instructions with regard to all observances. The matters explained in one Smrti may not be found in an other, thus giving rise to doubts in acharas which are to be cleared by using the works called "Dharmashastra Nibandhanas". These nibandhanas do not leave out any rite or dharma. Nirnayasindhu (by Kamalakara Bhatta), Vaidyanatha Dikshitiyam, Dharmasindhu are accepted and referred to authoritative texts in the present day.<ref name=":32222" />
== संवादः || Discussion ==
Traditionally, the Chaturdasha vidyas consider Puranas, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharmashastras as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":32222" /> However, due to similarity of names a few questions arise here
# Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras are mentioned under the classification of [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] and as those among the Veda Upangas.
# Dharmasutras are given in Kalpas (as Vedangas) and Dharmashastras are mentioned as one among the Veda Upangas.
What are included in these texts?

Dr. N. Sivasenani of University of Hyderabad, presents a few thoughts about these questions <blockquote>''"Nyaya" should be taken to mean Nyaya-Vaiseshika-Sankhya and Yoga; and Mimamsa covers both Purva- and Uttara-mimamsas. Why should it be so? Based on the context. Further, Puranas include Mahabharata and Ramayana."''</blockquote><blockquote>''"In the Vedanga Kalpas, there are four kinds of Sutras - Shrauta- (dealing with vedic rites), Grhya- (dealing with 16 samskaras)-, Dharma- (dealing with secular matters) and Shulba- sutras. However, of these, Dharmasutras got expanded tremendously. Firstly, there are the eighteen Smritis - like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and so on. Note that this enumeration is a Srmiti-work and not a Sutra-work such as Apastambasutras of Kalpas. Then these have further been expanded by huge commentaries. Further, omnibus volumes of "Nibandhas" came into existence which are a compilation of views of various Smritis and other authorities. Then since Nibandhas grew in volume, condensed manuals combining Srauta-, Grihya- and Dharma- sutra elements like Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu came about. So much so that today, Dharmasindhu is usually the first and last reference when a question of Dharma arises (example: when is Sivaratri this year or who are sapindas). Since this part alone grew in volume, it is listed separately under Dharmashastras."''</blockquote>To summarize
* It can be said that Nyaya and Mimamsa are Upangas (Chaturdasha Vidyas) and Darshana shastras (Shad Darsanas) and based on Vedas. The Dharmasutras of Kalpa Vedanga and the Dharmashastras of Upangas are the same texts. <ref name=":12" />
* Dharmasutras given under Kalpa Vedanga, for example : Apasthamba sutras (आपस्तम्बसूत्र-s) refer mainly to sutra works of dharmas associated with specific shrauta yajnika kriyas (श्रौतयाज्ञिकक्रियाः). These have been hugely expanded into Dharma-shastras (Smritis works), for example : Manu smriti. These refer to dharmas applicable to man in general society.
* While in Kalpas, '''Dharmasutras''' (classified under Vedanga) generally lay down the code of conduct to be followed by a person engaged in vaidika yagna kriyas, '''Dharmashastras''' (classified under Upangas) lay down the general moral code of conduct applicable to every human being. Also Dharmashastras include later day texts combining the different parts of Kalpas, codified into condensed versions as in Dharmasindhu and Nirnayasindhu (निर्णयसिन्धुः).
* Mimamsa is divided into Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa. Purva Mimamsa highlights the discriminating and decision making qualities of the Vedas by analysis. Here, Purva Mimamsa is generally what is considered for the term Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called as Vedanta, which is classified under the Jnanakanda (ज्ञानकाण्डः).
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Puranas]]

Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)

2019-05-03T10:10:07Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vaidika Vangmaya (Samskrit : वैदिकवाङ्मयम्) means that literature which is "associated with the Vedas". Vaidika literature includes the ancillary and subsidiary texts associated with the Vedas which have come into existence to clarify and understand the Vedas. Thus over a period of time, different explanatory shastras evolved to explain the subtle concepts presented in Vedas and they are included in under the Smriti literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref>Swami Sivananda, ''All About Hinduism''</ref> The following headings cover the topics discussed under Vaidika Vangmaya
# वेदाङ्गानि || [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]] (6)
# उपवेदाः || [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|Upa-Vedas]] (4)
# वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas (4)
## पुराणानि || Puranas (18), उपपुराणानि || Upa-Puranas (18), इतिहासः || Itihasa (2)
## दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras (6)
## स्मृतिग्रन्थाः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras (18)
# अन्यग्रन्थाः || Other Smrtigranthas (Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Parishistas)
Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely spiritual but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth. Understanding vaidika literature itself developed into many branches covering different aspects of the subject. While some have developed independently (such as Jyotisha - to explain muhurtas in vaidika kriyas), others summarize (such as Kalpa which is a manual of procedures from different vedas) and a few others are simplified (like the Puranas in story format) for easy understanding (including the Mahabharata).
== विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas ==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>[https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/843c92_0424304abe1f4fe6b3ddf549073ba1a5.pdf https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/843c92_f50e98e77cd64367905b97f1156025af.pdf]</ref> as they give comprehensive knowledge of dharma. These include the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Chaturvedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda), Shad(ved)angas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotish), and 4 Upangas (Puranas, Nyaya shastra, Mimamsa and Dharmashastra) of Vedas.<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
=== चतुर्दशविद्याः ॥ Chaturdasha vidyas ===
According to Vachaspatya, '''Nandi Purana''' gives the 14 vidyasthanas as follows<blockquote>वेदादिषु चतुर्दशसु विद्यासु। ताश्च “विद्याश्चतुर्दश प्रोक्ताः क्रमेण तु यथास्थिति। षडङ्गमिश्रितावेदा धर्म्मशास्त्रं पुराणकम्। मीमांमातर्कमपि च एता विद्याश्चतुर्दश | नन्दि पु०।<ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>vedādiṣu caturdaśasu vidyāsu। tāśca "vidyāścaturdaśa proktāḥ krameṇa tu yathāsthiti। ṣaḍaṅgamiśritāvedā dharmmaśāstraṃ purāṇakam। mīmāṃmātarkamapi ca etā vidyāścaturdaśa"| nandi pu।</blockquote>Meaning : Fourteen vidyas are given as - vedas with their 6 angas (अङ्ग-s), dharmashastra, purana, mimamsa (मीमांसा) with tarka (तर्कः).

According to '''Vachaspatya''', <blockquote>पुराणन्यायमीमांसाधर्म्मशास्त्राङ्गमिश्रिताः। वेदाः स्थानानि विद्यानां धर्म्मस्य च चतुर्दश” या० स्मृतौ विद्यास्थानत्वोक्तेस्तासां तथात्वम्।<ref name=":22222" /> (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote><blockquote>purāṇanyāyamīmāṃsādharmmaśāstrāṅgamiśritāḥ। vedāḥ sthānāni vidyānāṃ dharmmasya ca caturdaśa" yā. smṛtau vidyāsthānatvoktestāsāṃ tathātvam। (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote>Summary: Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Dharmashastras combined with vedangas, and vedas form the 14 vidyastanas as given in '''Yagnavalkya Smriti'''.

'''Manusmriti''' also refers to these abodes of knowledge as 14 vidyas as does the '''Mahabharata''' (12.122.31).<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः । पुराणं धमर्शास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुदर्श ॥</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ । purāṇaṃ dhamarśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścatudarśa ॥</blockquote>

=== अष्टादशविद्याः ॥ Ashtadasha vidyas ===
However, Vishnupurana<ref name=":1">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref> enumerates the existence of 18 vidyasthanas by adding Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः), Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः), Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः) and [[Arthashastra]] (अर्थशास्त्रम्) (four Upavedas) to the previously explained 14 vidyasthanas as given in the following shlokas.<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः। पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुर्दश ॥ २८ ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ। purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścaturdaśa ॥ 28 ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेत्यनुक्रमात् । अर्थशास्त्रं परं तस्मात् विद्या ह्यष्टादश स्मृताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvedo dhanurvedo gāndharvaścetyanukramāt । arthaśāstraṃ paraṃ tasmāt vidyā hyaṣṭādaśa smṛtāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>'''Shivamahapurana''' also describes the 14 Vidyas and 18 vidyas as given above. (5.7) <ref name=":022" />
== वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas ==
The word Anga (अङ्ग) is used in the sense of Upakaraka (उपकारक | useful tool)<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref> with reference to understanding vedajnana or the knowledge of vedas, these six shastras are extremely useful, hence they are called Vedangas. The oldest reference to what constitute the Vedangas is given in Mundakopanishad <blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvēdō yajurvēdaḥ sāmavēdō'tharvavēdaḥ śikṣā kalpō vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chandō jyōtiṣamiti । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)</blockquote>Meaning : Aparavidya include the rigveda, yajurveda, samaveda, atharvaveda (four vedas), siksha, kalpa, vyakaranam, niruktam, chandas, jyothisha (6 angas of vedas). <blockquote>शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि षडेव तु ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṃ niruktaṃ chandasāṃ cayaḥ । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ caiva vedāṅgāni ṣaḍeva tu ॥</blockquote>According to the above shloka, Vedangas are six in number namely '''Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotish'''.<ref>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/vedangas/ Introduction</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
! Subject Dealt With
|-
|<nowiki>1.शिक्षा || </nowiki>[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]]
| Science of phonetics or pronunciation and intonation.
|-
|<nowiki>2.व्याकरणम् || </nowiki>[[Vyākaraṇa|Vyakarana]]
| Science of the grammar of language
|-
|<nowiki>3.निरुक्तम् || </nowiki>[[Nirukta]]
| Etymology or the science of origin, meaning and explanation of the Vedic words.
|-
|<nowiki>4.छन्दस् || </nowiki>Chandas
| Prosody or science of composition of the hymns like meter, rhyme, पाद (quarter) etc. of the mantras
|-
|<nowiki>5.ज्योतिष् || </nowiki>[[Jyotisha]]
| Astronomy and astrology mainly directed towards fixing up of auspicious moments for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices
|-
|<nowiki>6.कल्पः || </nowiki>[[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kalpa]]
| Science or manual of yagna kriyas or rituals, both Vedic and domestic
|}<blockquote>छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ उच्यते । ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 41) </blockquote><blockquote>शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम् । तस्मात् साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 42) </blockquote><blockquote>chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo'tha ucyate । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam । tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaiva brahmaloke mahīyate ॥</blockquote>In Paniniya Shiksha (पाणिनीयशिक्षा), these six vedangas are described in the above shloka which means - "Chandas forms the feet of the Vedapurusha, while Kalpas are the hands, Jyotish is the eye, Nirukta forms the ears, Shiksha is the nose, while the face (speech) is formed by Vyakarana. Only by studying vedas (Vedapurusha) along with vedangas (different parts) will one attain the brahmaloka".<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Panineeyasiksha] (41 and 42)</ref><ref>Dr. S. Yegnasubramanian, The Vedangas (Organs of the Vedas).http://svbf.org/journal/vol1no3/vedas.pdf </ref>

Vedangas are thus, special shastras to understand the vedic language, meaning and their usage and the karmakanda (कर्मकाण्डः) expounded in Vedas. To discourage digressing distorted interpretations these shastras have been given by the great rishis to streamline the understanding of correct intent of the Vedas.<ref name=":42222" />
== उपवेदाः || Upavedas ==
They are called the subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number one attached to each Veda<ref name=":1" /><ref>[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/ Introduction to Upavedas]</ref> viz.<blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चैव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्र चतुर्थन्तु विद्या ह्मष्टादशैव ताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvēdō dhanurvēdō gāndharvaścaiva tē trayaḥ । arthaśāstra caturthantu vidyā hmaṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
!Upaveda Name
! Subject Dealt with
! Associated with
|-
|Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)
|Science of healthy living including the prevention and cure of diseases
| Rigveda
|-
|Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)
|Science of archery, martial arts and warfare
| Yajurveda
|-
|Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)
|Forms of fine arts like music and dance.
| Samaveda
|-
|Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)
|Shastra dealing with finance, economics, politics, statesmanship, public administration
| Atharvaveda
|}Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda (स्थापत्यवेदः | architecture) as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra. Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" />
== वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas ==
Upangas of Vedas include the following four bodies of knowledge namely<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":22222" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":32222">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap5.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan </ref>.
# Puranas
# Mimamsa
# [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya shastra]]
# Dharmashastra or Smrti-granthas
According to some scholars,<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref> the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad-Darshanas]] may be classified as Upangas of Vedas. According to Shri. Kishore Mishraji<ref name=":0">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> Pratipadasutra, Anupada, Chandobhasha (Pratisakhya) Dharmashastra, Nyaya and Vaiseshika constitute the six Upangas of Vedas.
=== पुराणानि ॥ Puranas ===
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|right|frameless|680x680px|border]]
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian texts about a wide range of topics particularly legends and traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major devatas such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Mahapuranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas (Minor Puranas), containing over 400,000 verses.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022">[http://www.vcscsd.org/content/balabhavan/18-Puranas.pdf 18 Puranas - English Translation] by Dharmic Scriptures Team</ref> The list of Puranas is given in Padmapurana (2.3.5), Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana (4.7.1), Agni Purana (10.8.3)<ref name=":022" />

The 18 Mahapuranas listed in Vishnu puranam<ref name=":1" /> are as follows<blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते। ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē। brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21)</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21) </blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्त्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम्। वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चैव त्रयोदशम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22)</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivarttaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam। vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcaiva trayōdaśam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22) </blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम्। मात्स्यञ्च गारुडञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततःपरम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam। mātsyañca gāruḍañcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥparam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्मष्टादश महामुने ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hmaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote>Meaning : 18 Puranas have been seen (given). They include Brahma Purana, Padma purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana. And the others are Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana is the seventh, Agni Purana is the eighth, Bhavishya purana being the ninth. the tenth is Brahma vaivarta Purana, the eleventh is termed Linga Purana. Varaha Purana is the twelfth and Skanda Purana the thirteenth, fourteenth is Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana is termed the fifteenth. Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana come after these. And (eighteen) Upapuranas have been given by rishis along with these Mahapuranas.

=== उपपुराणानि ॥ Upapuranas ===
The Upapuranas are variously given in different texts. However a few are common in all these versions. Upapuranas also describe the legends, vratas and discuss a vast number of topics (such as creation, [[Kala (काल) : Time Factor|Kala (Time)]], [[Dana (दानम्)|Dana]], information on subjects like Dharma and Polity etc) similar to the Puranas.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''अष्टादश उपपुराणानि'''
!S. No.
!स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda purana (4.7.1)<ref name=":022" />
!गरुडपुराणम् ॥ Garuda Purana<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
!देवीभागवतम् ॥ Devibhagavata<ref name=":42222" />
!कूर्मपुराणम् ॥ Kurma Purana<ref>Kurma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1])</ref><ref>Upapurana List from [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Shabdakalpadhurma]</ref>
|-
|1
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|-
|2
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|नरसिंहम्पुराणम् ॥ Narasimha Purana
|-
|3
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|शिवपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Purana
|<nowiki>स्कन्दपुराणम् || Skanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|4
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Dharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|-
|5
|दुर्वासपुराणाम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|नन्दीश्वर ॥ Nandiswara Purana
|मानवपुराणम् ॥ Manava Purana
|दूर्वासपुराणम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|-
|6
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदीयपुराणम् ॥ Naradeeya Purana
|-
|7
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|-
|8
|मनुपुराणम् ॥ Manu Purana
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|-
|9
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|-
|10
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|आदित्यपुराणम् ॥ Aditya Purana
|<nowiki>ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् || Brahmanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|11
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|-
|12
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कल्की / कालिकापुराणम्॥ Kalki / Kalika Purana
|-
|13
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheshwara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|<nowiki>महेश्वरपुराणम् || Maheshwara Purana </nowiki>
|-
|14
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|-
|15
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|-
|16
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|-
|17
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|भागवतपुराणम् ॥ Bhagavata Purana
|मारीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|-
|18
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|भार्गवपुरानम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|वसिष्ठपुराणम् ॥ Vasishta Purana
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|}

Many other Upapuranas are also available such as Ganapatya / Mudgala ( गाणपत्यम् / मुद्गलम्), Vasishta (वासिष्ठम्), Hamsa from other different sources and a total of upto 30 Upapuranas are mentioned, though their availability is not known.<ref name=":42222" /> Thus, we see from the two lists that the names of a few Puranas are the same in both Puranas and Upapuranas (ex: Skanda purana, Vamana purana)

According to a few scholars, "Bhagavata" in Puranas refers to Devibhagavata and not Shrimad Bhagavata containing the stories of SriKrishna.(Page 174 of Sanskrita Sahitya Charitra<ref name=":42222" />). However, it is certain that both are equally valuable and instructive. Devi Bhagavata is specially fitted for those inclined to metaphysics while the Vaishnava Bhagavata endears one with Bhakti.<ref name=":024" />

The Puranas have been highly influential in the development of Bharatiya samskriti. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature) or pertaining to vedas with easy understanding as mentioned by Shivamahapurana <ref name=":022" />.

=== इतिहासः ॥ Itihasas ===
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful epics of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the Maharshi Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref>Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}

==== The Ramayana ====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, Aranyakanda, Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

=== दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras ===
The chaturdasha vidyas mention Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras as part of the the Veda Upangas. In the present context, considering all the Shad darshanas to be part of the veda Upangas, they have been discussed completely in this project.

Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the shastra rachana paddhati or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds - Adibhoutika, Adhyatmika, Adidaivika.

The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
*Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
*Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
*Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information on the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|[[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darshana]]
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika Darshana]]
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya Darshana]]
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|[[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa Darshana]]
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti
Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita : Sri Shankaracharya Vishishtadvaita : Sri Ramanujam
Dvaita : Madhavacharya
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

=== स्मृतिग्रन्थयः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras ===
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":0222">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Dharmasutras Vs Dharmashastras (Smrtis)====
Smrtis, the codified law books, otherwise known as Dharmashastras, are different texts as against the Dharmasutra works (Shrauta Sutras and Dharma Sutras) given in the Kalpas. Smrti texts have laid emphasis on the karmaushtana on the social front as compared to karmanushtana of an individual. These granthas contain information on the aspects of administration and governance, it may be said that as the number of kingdoms grew, so also the number of Smrti granthas.

Dharmasutras are the basis of composing Dharmashastra granthas. Dharmasutra granthas are cryptic, abbreviated with short explanations of the sutras, hence they required bhashyas or commentaries and tikas for understanding them.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras Contrasted<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. (1962) ''[https://archive.org/details/106533393DharmasutrasAStudyInTheirOriginAndDevelopmentSBanerjiCalcutta1962600dpiLossy/page/n15 Dharmasutras, A Study in their Origin and Development.]'' Calcutta : Punthi Pustak</ref>
!
!Dharmasutras
!Dharmashastras
|-
|Texts
|Part of Kalpa : Ex - Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Baudhayana
|Smrti granthas - Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti
|-
|Form
|Composed in prose intermixed with slokas
|Composed as slokas (metrical form) exclusively
|-
|Language
|Language is प्राचीन (archaic )
|Language is अर्वाचीन (modern)
|-
|Arrangement of topics
|No arrangement into topics is seen though presented in an orderly manner
|Topics are given under distinct heads.
|}

==== Manava Dharmashastra ====
Another point of debate among the scholars is whether the book named Manava-dharmashastra (मनव-धर्मशास्त्रम्) and Manusmrti are one and the same. Both these texts have been authored by Manu, who is considered as the Adipurusha (first in the human race), as per Samhita and Brahmanas. However, the aspects found in Manava-dharmashastra, which are found in other ancient texts, are not to be seen in Manusmrti. Hence is believed by scholars that Manava-dharmashastra and Manusmrti are two different texts and that Manusmrti is founded on the principles given in Manava-dharmashastra.<ref name=":42222" />
====Number of Smritis====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti|Manu Smrti]], Yajnavalkya Smrti (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिः) and Parasara Smrti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.<ref name=":5" />
*Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
*Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
*Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
*Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
*Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, however, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref><blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji,<ref name=":32222" /> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

Swami Sivananda<ref name=":0222" />, mentions that the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":0222" />

== Other Smrti Works ==
Apart from these major texts, other works like Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Dharmashastra Nibandhas like Nirnayasindhu, Dharmasindhu etc, Tamil vedas among other texts have expanded largely for the guidance of people to interpret the various aspects given in above discussed Smrti texts.
=== अनुक्रमणिकाः || Anukramanikas ===
For the protection of Veda mantras Anukramanika granthas (अनुक्रमणिकाग्रन्था-s) have been compiled. These Anukramanikas are lists that contain concise information about the Veda mantra's rishi, chandas and devatas. The most important rishis who contributed to creation of these lists include - Shaunaka (शौनकः), Katyayana (कात्यायनः). Though these Anukramanikas are not included Vedangas, these play an important role in the [[Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)|protection of vedas]].

In Rigveda, the rishi, chandas, devata, anuvaka (अनुवाकः), sukta (अनुवाकः) number, the name and important features are compiled in structured manner, in Anustup chandas (अनुष्टुप् छन्दस्). The phalasiddhi (फलसिद्धिः | benefits) of chanting particular mantras is also explained in detail. Such texts are available for other vedas also (Page 94 and 95 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />).

=== Nibandhanas ===
Kanchi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Paramacharya, explains that some Smrtis do not contain instructions with regard to all observances. The matters explained in one Smrti may not be found in an other, thus giving rise to doubts in acharas which are to be cleared by using the works called "Dharmashastra Nibandhanas". These nibandhanas do not leave out any rite or dharma. Nirnayasindhu (by Kamalakara Bhatta), Vaidyanatha Dikshitiyam, Dharmasindhu are accepted and referred to authoritative texts in the present day.<ref name=":32222" />
== संवादः || Discussion ==
Traditionally, the Chaturdasha vidyas consider Puranas, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharmashastras as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":32222" /> However, due to similarity of names a few questions arise here
# Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras are mentioned under the classification of [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] and as those among the Veda Upangas.
# Dharmasutras are given in Kalpas (as Vedangas) and Dharmashastras are mentioned as one among the Veda Upangas.
What are included in these texts?

Dr. N. Sivasenani of University of Hyderabad, presents a few thoughts about these questions <blockquote>''"Nyaya" should be taken to mean Nyaya-Vaiseshika-Sankhya and Yoga; and Mimamsa covers both Purva- and Uttara-mimamsas. Why should it be so? Based on the context. Further, Puranas include Mahabharata and Ramayana."''</blockquote><blockquote>''"In the Vedanga Kalpas, there are four kinds of Sutras - Shrauta- (dealing with vedic rites), Grhya- (dealing with 16 samskaras)-, Dharma- (dealing with secular matters) and Shulba- sutras. However, of these, Dharmasutras got expanded tremendously. Firstly, there are the eighteen Smritis - like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and so on. Note that this enumeration is a Srmiti-work and not a Sutra-work such as Apastambasutras of Kalpas. Then these have further been expanded by huge commentaries. Further, omnibus volumes of "Nibandhas" came into existence which are a compilation of views of various Smritis and other authorities. Then since Nibandhas grew in volume, condensed manuals combining Srauta-, Grihya- and Dharma- sutra elements like Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu came about. So much so that today, Dharmasindhu is usually the first and last reference when a question of Dharma arises (example: when is Sivaratri this year or who are sapindas). Since this part alone grew in volume, it is listed separately under Dharmashastras."''</blockquote>To summarize
* It can be said that Nyaya and Mimamsa are Upangas (Chaturdasha Vidyas) and Darshana shastras (Shad Darsanas) and based on Vedas. The Dharmasutras of Kalpa Vedanga and the Dharmashastras of Upangas are the same texts. <ref name=":12" />
* Dharmasutras given under Kalpa Vedanga, for example : Apasthamba sutras (आपस्तम्बसूत्र-s) refer mainly to sutra works of dharmas associated with specific shrauta yajnika kriyas (श्रौतयाज्ञिकक्रियाः). These have been hugely expanded into Dharma-shastras (Smritis works), for example : Manu smriti. These refer to dharmas applicable to man in general society.
* While in Kalpas, '''Dharmasutras''' (classified under Vedanga) generally lay down the code of conduct to be followed by a person engaged in vaidika yagna kriyas, '''Dharmashastras''' (classified under Upangas) lay down the general moral code of conduct applicable to every human being. Also Dharmashastras include later day texts combining the different parts of Kalpas, codified into condensed versions as in Dharmasindhu and Nirnayasindhu (निर्णयसिन्धुः).
* Mimamsa is divided into Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa. Purva Mimamsa highlights the discriminating and decision making qualities of the Vedas by analysis. Here, Purva Mimamsa is generally what is considered for the term Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called as Vedanta, which is classified under the Jnanakanda (ज्ञानकाण्डः).
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Puranas]]

Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)

2019-03-24T04:08:41Z

Megh: /* विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas */

Vaidika Vangmaya (Samskrit : वैदिकवाङ्मयम्) means that literature which is "associated with the Vedas". Vaidika literature includes the ancillary and subsidiary texts associated with the Vedas which have come into existence to clarify and understand the Vedas. Thus over a period of time, different explanatory shastras evolved to explain the subtle concepts presented in Vedas and they are included in under the Smriti literature.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref>Swami Sivananda, ''All About Hinduism''</ref> The following headings cover the topics discussed under Vaidika Vangmaya
# वेदाङ्गानि || [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]] (6)
# उपवेदाः || [[Upavedas (उपवेदाः)|Upa-Vedas]] (4)
# वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas (4)
## पुराणानि || Puranas (18), उपपुराणानि || Upa-Puranas (18), इतिहासः || Itihasa (2)
## दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras (6)
## स्मृतिग्रन्थाः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras (18)
# अन्यग्रन्थाः || Other Smrtigranthas (Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Parishistas)
Vedas are a storehouse of knowledge needed for mankind, not merely spiritual but also secular or temporal. They are not compositions made in any one particular period. They are spread over a period of time; one group separated from the other probably by centuries and handed down from one generation to the other through word of mouth. Understanding vaidika literature itself developed into many branches covering different aspects of the subject. While some have developed independently (such as Jyotisha - to explain muhurtas in vaidika kriyas), others summarize (such as Kalpa which is a manual of procedures from different vedas) and a few others are simplified (like the Puranas in story format) for easy understanding (including the Mahabharata).
== विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas ==
Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि)<ref>https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/843c92_0424304abe1f4fe6b3ddf549073ba1a5.pdf</ref> as they give comprehensive knowledge of dharma. These include the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Chaturvedas]] (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda), Shad(ved)angas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotish), and 4 Upangas (Puranas, Nyaya shastra, Mimamsa and Dharmashastra) of Vedas.<ref name=":02222">Venkateswara Rao. Potturi (2010) ''Paaramaathika Padakosam'' Hyderabad: Msko Books</ref>
=== चतुर्दशविद्याः ॥ Chaturdasha vidyas ===
According to Vachaspatya, '''Nandi Purana''' gives the 14 vidyasthanas as follows<blockquote>वेदादिषु चतुर्दशसु विद्यासु। ताश्च “विद्याश्चतुर्दश प्रोक्ताः क्रमेण तु यथास्थिति। षडङ्गमिश्रितावेदा धर्म्मशास्त्रं पुराणकम्। मीमांमातर्कमपि च एता विद्याश्चतुर्दश | नन्दि पु०।<ref name=":22222">Vachaspatyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9 Chaturdashavidyas])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>vedādiṣu caturdaśasu vidyāsu। tāśca "vidyāścaturdaśa proktāḥ krameṇa tu yathāsthiti। ṣaḍaṅgamiśritāvedā dharmmaśāstraṃ purāṇakam। mīmāṃmātarkamapi ca etā vidyāścaturdaśa"| nandi pu।</blockquote>Meaning : Fourteen vidyas are given as - vedas with their 6 angas (अङ्ग-s), dharmashastra, purana, mimamsa (मीमांसा) with tarka (तर्कः).

According to '''Vachaspatya''', <blockquote>पुराणन्यायमीमांसाधर्म्मशास्त्राङ्गमिश्रिताः। वेदाः स्थानानि विद्यानां धर्म्मस्य च चतुर्दश” या० स्मृतौ विद्यास्थानत्वोक्तेस्तासां तथात्वम्।<ref name=":22222" /> (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote><blockquote>purāṇanyāyamīmāṃsādharmmaśāstrāṅgamiśritāḥ। vedāḥ sthānāni vidyānāṃ dharmmasya ca caturdaśa" yā. smṛtau vidyāsthānatvoktestāsāṃ tathātvam। (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)</blockquote>Summary: Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Dharmashastras combined with vedangas, and vedas form the 14 vidyastanas as given in '''Yagnavalkya Smriti'''.

'''Manusmriti''' also refers to these abodes of knowledge as 14 vidyas as does the '''Mahabharata''' (12.122.31).<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः । पुराणं धमर्शास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुदर्श ॥</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ । purāṇaṃ dhamarśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścatudarśa ॥</blockquote>

=== अष्टादशविद्याः ॥ Ashtadasha vidyas ===
However, Vishnupurana<ref name=":1">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref> enumerates the existence of 18 vidyasthanas by adding Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः), Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः), Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः) and [[Arthashastra]] (अर्थशास्त्रम्) (four Upavedas) to the previously explained 14 vidyasthanas as given in the following shlokas.<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः। पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुर्दश ॥ २८ ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ। purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścaturdaśa ॥ 28 ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेत्यनुक्रमात् । अर्थशास्त्रं परं तस्मात् विद्या ह्यष्टादश स्मृताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvedo dhanurvedo gāndharvaścetyanukramāt । arthaśāstraṃ paraṃ tasmāt vidyā hyaṣṭādaśa smṛtāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>'''Shivamahapurana''' also describes the 14 Vidyas and 18 vidyas as given above. (5.7) <ref name=":022" />
== वेदाङ्गानि || Vedangas ==
The word Anga (अङ्ग) is used in the sense of Upakaraka (उपकारक | useful tool)<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref> with reference to understanding vedajnana or the knowledge of vedas, these six shastras are extremely useful, hence they are called Vedangas. The oldest reference to what constitute the Vedangas is given in Mundakopanishad <blockquote>तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatrāparā r̥gvēdō yajurvēdaḥ sāmavēdō'tharvavēdaḥ śikṣā kalpō vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chandō jyōtiṣamiti । (Mund. Upan. 1.1.5)</blockquote>Meaning : Aparavidya include the rigveda, yajurveda, samaveda, atharvaveda (four vedas), siksha, kalpa, vyakaranam, niruktam, chandas, jyothisha (6 angas of vedas). <blockquote>शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि षडेव तु ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṃ niruktaṃ chandasāṃ cayaḥ । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ caiva vedāṅgāni ṣaḍeva tu ॥</blockquote>According to the above shloka, Vedangas are six in number namely '''Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotish'''.<ref>http://vedicheritage.gov.in/vedangas/ Introduction</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
! Subject Dealt With
|-
|<nowiki>1.शिक्षा || </nowiki>[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]]
| Science of phonetics or pronunciation and intonation.
|-
|<nowiki>2.व्याकरणम् || </nowiki>[[Vyākaraṇa|Vyakarana]]
| Science of the grammar of language
|-
|<nowiki>3.निरुक्तम् || </nowiki>[[Nirukta]]
| Etymology or the science of origin, meaning and explanation of the Vedic words.
|-
|<nowiki>4.छन्दस् || </nowiki>Chandas
| Prosody or science of composition of the hymns like meter, rhyme, पाद (quarter) etc. of the mantras
|-
|<nowiki>5.ज्योतिष् || </nowiki>[[Jyotisha]]
| Astronomy and astrology mainly directed towards fixing up of auspicious moments for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices
|-
|<nowiki>6.कल्पः || </nowiki>[[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kalpa]]
| Science or manual of yagna kriyas or rituals, both Vedic and domestic
|}<blockquote>छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ उच्यते । ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 41) </blockquote><blockquote>शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम् । तस्मात् साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥ (Pani. Siks. 42) </blockquote><blockquote>chandaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpo'tha ucyate । jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam । tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaiva brahmaloke mahīyate ॥</blockquote>In Paniniya Shiksha (पाणिनीयशिक्षा), these six vedangas are described in the above shloka which means - "Chandas forms the feet of the Vedapurusha, while Kalpas are the hands, Jyotish is the eye, Nirukta forms the ears, Shiksha is the nose, while the face (speech) is formed by Vyakarana. Only by studying vedas (Vedapurusha) along with vedangas (different parts) will one attain the brahmaloka".<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Panineeyasiksha] (41 and 42)</ref><ref>Dr. S. Yegnasubramanian, The Vedangas (Organs of the Vedas).http://svbf.org/journal/vol1no3/vedas.pdf </ref>

Vedangas are thus, special shastras to understand the vedic language, meaning and their usage and the karmakanda (कर्मकाण्डः) expounded in Vedas. To discourage digressing distorted interpretations these shastras have been given by the great rishis to streamline the understanding of correct intent of the Vedas.<ref name=":42222" />
== उपवेदाः || Upavedas ==
They are called the subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number one attached to each Veda<ref name=":1" /><ref>[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/ Introduction to Upavedas]</ref> viz.<blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चैव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्र चतुर्थन्तु विद्या ह्मष्टादशैव ताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvēdō dhanurvēdō gāndharvaścaiva tē trayaḥ । arthaśāstra caturthantu vidyā hmaṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
!Upaveda Name
! Subject Dealt with
! Associated with
|-
|Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)
|Science of healthy living including the prevention and cure of diseases
| Rigveda
|-
|Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)
|Science of archery, martial arts and warfare
| Yajurveda
|-
|Gandharvaveda (गन्धर्ववेदः)
|Forms of fine arts like music and dance.
| Samaveda
|-
|Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)
|Shastra dealing with finance, economics, politics, statesmanship, public administration
| Atharvaveda
|}Some schools hold Sthapatyaveda (स्थापत्यवेदः | architecture) as the fourth Upaveda instead of Arthashastra. Sthapatyaveda relates with engineering and architecture.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":0" />
== वेद-उपाङ्गानि || Veda-Upangas ==
Upangas of Vedas include the following four bodies of knowledge namely<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":22222" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":32222">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap5.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan </ref>.
# Puranas
# Mimamsa
# [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya shastra]]
# Dharmashastra or Smrti-granthas
According to some scholars,<ref name=":12">Shri, Satya. (2017) ''Demystifying Brahminism and Reinventing Hinduism: Vol 1.'' Chennai: Notion Press</ref> the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad-Darshanas]] may be classified as Upangas of Vedas. According to Shri. Kishore Mishraji<ref name=":0">Shri. Kishore Mishra's Article : ''[http://vedicheritage.gov.in/pdf/ved_vedang_gp_13.pdf Vaidik Vangmay ka Shastriya Swaroop]'' in Vedic Heritage Portal.</ref> Pratipadasutra, Anupada, Chandobhasha (Pratisakhya) Dharmashastra, Nyaya and Vaiseshika constitute the six Upangas of Vedas.
=== पुराणानि ॥ Puranas ===
[[File:अष्टादश महापुराणानि.jpg|right|frameless|680x680px|border]]
The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian texts about a wide range of topics particularly legends and traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major devatas such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 Mahapuranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upapuranas (Minor Puranas), containing over 400,000 verses.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":022">[http://www.vcscsd.org/content/balabhavan/18-Puranas.pdf 18 Puranas - English Translation] by Dharmic Scriptures Team</ref> The list of Puranas is given in Padmapurana (2.3.5), Vishnupurana (3.6), Skanda purana (4.7.1), Agni Purana (10.8.3)<ref name=":022" />

The 18 Mahapuranas listed in Vishnu puranam<ref name=":1" /> are as follows<blockquote>अष्टादश पुराणानि पुराणज्ञाः प्रचक्षते। ब्राह्मं पाद्मं वैष्णवञ्च शैवं भागवतं तथा। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni purāṇajñāḥ pracakṣatē। brāhmaṁ pādmaṁ vaiṣṇavañca śaivaṁ bhāgavataṁ tathā। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.20)</blockquote><blockquote>अथान्यन्नारदीयञ्च मार्कण्डेयञ्च सप्तमम् । आग्नेयमष्टमञ्चैव भविष्यं नवमं तथा ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21)</blockquote><blockquote>athānyannāradīyañca mārkaṇḍēyañca saptamam । āgnēyamaṣṭamañcaiva bhaviṣyaṁ navamaṁ tathā ।(Vish. Pura. 3.6.21) </blockquote><blockquote>दशमं ब्रह्मवैवर्त्तं लैङ्गमेकादशं स्मृतम्। वाराहं द्वादशञ्चैव स्कान्दञ्चैव त्रयोदशम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22)</blockquote><blockquote>daśamaṁ brahmavaivarttaṁ laiṅgamēkādaśaṁ smr̥tam। vārāhaṁ dvādaśañcaiva skāndañcaiva trayōdaśam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.22) </blockquote><blockquote>चतुर्दशं वामनञ्च कौर्मं पञ्चदशं स्मृतम्। मात्स्यञ्च गारुडञ्चैव ब्रह्माण्डञ्च ततःपरम्। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>caturdaśaṁ vāmanañca kaurmaṁ pañcadaśaṁ smr̥tam। mātsyañca gāruḍañcaiva brahmāṇḍañca tataḥparam। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.23)</blockquote><blockquote>तथा चोपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि च । महापुराणान्येतानि ह्मष्टादश महामुने ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote><blockquote>tathā cōpapurāṇāni munibhiḥ kathitāni ca । mahāpurāṇānyētāni hmaṣṭādaśa mahāmunē ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.24)</blockquote>Meaning : 18 Puranas have been seen (given). They include Brahma Purana, Padma purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana. And the others are Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana is the seventh, Agni Purana is the eighth, Bhavishya purana being the ninth. the tenth is Brahma vaivarta Purana, the eleventh is termed Linga Purana. Varaha Purana is the twelfth and Skanda Purana the thirteenth, fourteenth is Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana is termed the fifteenth. Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana come after these. And (eighteen) Upapuranas have been given by rishis along with these Mahapuranas.

=== उपपुराणानि ॥ Upapuranas ===
The Upapuranas are variously given in different texts. However a few are common in all these versions. Upapuranas also describe the legends, vratas and discuss a vast number of topics (such as creation, [[Kala (काल) : Time Factor|Kala (Time)]], [[Dana (दानम्)|Dana]], information on subjects like Dharma and Polity etc) similar to the Puranas.
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''अष्टादश उपपुराणानि'''
!S. No.
!स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda purana (4.7.1)<ref name=":022" />
!गरुडपुराणम् ॥ Garuda Purana<ref>Garuda Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9 Acharakanda Adhyaya 223])</ref>
!देवीभागवतम् ॥ Devibhagavata<ref name=":42222" />
!कूर्मपुराणम् ॥ Kurma Purana<ref>Kurma Puranam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Purvabhaga, Adhyaya 1])</ref><ref>Upapurana List from [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82 Shabdakalpadhurma]</ref>
|-
|1
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanathkumara Purana
|सनत्कुमारपुराणम् ॥ Sanatkumara Purana
|-
|2
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|नरसिंहपुराणम् ॥ Narsimha Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|नरसिंहम्पुराणम् ॥ Narasimha Purana
|-
|3
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|स्कन्दपुराणम् ॥ Skanda Purana
|शिवपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Purana
|<nowiki>स्कन्दपुराणम् || Skanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|4
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shiva Dharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|शिवधर्मपुराणम् ॥ Shivadharma Purana
|-
|5
|दुर्वासपुराणाम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|नन्दीश्वर ॥ Nandiswara Purana
|मानवपुराणम् ॥ Manava Purana
|दूर्वासपुराणम् ॥ Durvasa Purana
|-
|6
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदपुराणम् ॥ Narada Purana
|नारदीयपुराणम् ॥ Naradeeya Purana
|-
|7
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|आश्चर्यपुराणम् ॥ Ashcharya Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|-
|8
|मनुपुराणम् ॥ Manu Purana
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|
|वामनपुराणम् ॥ Vamana Purana
|-
|9
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|उशनपुराणम् ॥ Ushana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|औषसनपुराणम् ॥ Aushasana Purana
|-
|10
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् ॥ Brahmanda Purana
|आदित्यपुराणम् ॥ Aditya Purana
|<nowiki>ब्रह्माण्डपुराणम् || Brahmanda Purana</nowiki>
|-
|11
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|वरुणपुराणम् ॥ Varuna Purana
|-
|12
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कालिकापुराणम् ॥ Kalika Purana
|कल्की / कालिकापुराणम्॥ Kalki / Kalika Purana
|-
|13
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheshwara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|महेश्वरपुराणम् ॥ Maheswara Purana
|<nowiki>महेश्वरपुराणम् || Maheshwara Purana </nowiki>
|-
|14
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|साम्बपुराणम् ॥ Samba Purana
|-
|15
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|कपिलपुराणम् ॥ Kapila Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|सौरपुराणम् ॥ Saura Purana
|-
|16
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|पराशरपुराणम् ॥ Parashara Purana
|-
|17
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|मरीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|भागवतपुराणम् ॥ Bhagavata Purana
|मारीचपुराणम् ॥ Maricha Purana
|-
|18
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|भार्गवपुरानम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|वसिष्ठपुराणम् ॥ Vasishta Purana
|भार्गवपुराणम् ॥ Bhargava Purana
|}

Many other Upapuranas are also available such as Ganapatya / Mudgala ( गाणपत्यम् / मुद्गलम्), Vasishta (वासिष्ठम्), Hamsa from other different sources and a total of upto 30 Upapuranas are mentioned, though their availability is not known.<ref name=":42222" /> Thus, we see from the two lists that the names of a few Puranas are the same in both Puranas and Upapuranas (ex: Skanda purana, Vamana purana)

According to a few scholars, "Bhagavata" in Puranas refers to Devibhagavata and not Shrimad Bhagavata containing the stories of SriKrishna.(Page 174 of Sanskrita Sahitya Charitra<ref name=":42222" />). However, it is certain that both are equally valuable and instructive. Devi Bhagavata is specially fitted for those inclined to metaphysics while the Vaishnava Bhagavata endears one with Bhakti.<ref name=":024" />

The Puranas have been highly influential in the development of Bharatiya samskriti. They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature) or pertaining to vedas with easy understanding as mentioned by Shivamahapurana <ref name=":022" />.

=== इतिहासः ॥ Itihasas ===
The two well-known Itihasas (histories) are the epics (Mahakavyas), Ramayana and Mahabharata They are two very popular and useful epics of the Hindus. The Ramayana was written by the Maharshi Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Maharshi Vyasa. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata speak to us clearly about the ancient India, about her people, her customs, her ways of living, her arts, her civilization and culture, her manufactures etc.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Some facts about Ramayana and Mahabharata<ref>Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 2 Laukika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
!Ramayana
!Mahabharata
|-
|It is called the Adikavya
|It is called Panchamaveda
|-
|Contains the story of a single hero: Sri Rama
|Contains many heroes : Kurus and Pandavas
|-
|Belongs to Parikriya (परिक्रिया) kind of Itihasa
|Belongs to Purakalpa (पुराकल्पा) kind of Itihasa
|-
|Happened in the Tretayuga
|Happened in the end of Dvaparayuga
|-
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Rama
|Story of Avatara purusha - Sri Krishna
|-
|Story connected with 4 of Saptarishis - Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishta and Visvamitra
|No connection at all with any of the ancient rishis
|-
|Sri Rama's actions exemplified Dharma
|Yudhisthira and Sri Krishna though followed Dharma were more routed in Rajaneeti
|-
|Filled with vivid descriptions
|Such descriptions of natural beauty are less.
|-
|Rama's army included Vanaras or monkeys
|Kurupandavas armies were vast and included mankind.
|}

==== The Ramayana ====
The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama, the ideal man. It is the history of the family of the solar race descended from Ishvaku, in which was born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters such as Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly establish Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife, the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals and inferiors, how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can obtain his release, freedom and perfection, may be learnt from this epic. The Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian Dharmik life. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogin. The life of Sita is regarded as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and affection. The Ramayana is written in twenty-four thousand slokas by Sri Valmiki Maharshi.<ref name=":022">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref> A few instances of topics of dharma dwelt on by Ramayana include : '''Rajadharma''' in Balakanda, Adhyaya 7, Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 100, Aranyakanda, Adhyaya 6, 9 and 33, 40, 41. '''Shraddha''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 77, 103 and 111. '''Stridharma''' in Ayodhyakanda, Adhyaya 24, 26-27, 29, 39 etc. Ramayana forms the basis for the creation of volumes of Laukika Sahitya of future ages.(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>)
====The Mahabharata====
The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas who were cousins and descendants of the lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopaedia of Hindu Dharma. It is also called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and metaphysics. The Mahabharata contains also the immortal discourse of Bhishma on Dharma, which he gave to Yudhishthira, when he was lying on the bed of arrows. The whole Mahabharata forms an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion unsurpassed by any other epic in the world. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Sri Krishna. The Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand slokas by Sri Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa. Mahabharata draws extensively on the dharmashastras and a few instances are as follows,(Page no 158 to 160 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
* Arachaka (evils of anarchy) - Shantiparva, 40
* Ashrama dharmas - Shanti parva, 61, 243 to 246
* Achara - Anushasana parva, 104, and Asvamedhika parva, 45
* Dana - Vanaparva 186, Shanti parva 235, Anushasana parva 57-99
* Prayaschitta - Shanti 34-35, 165
* Rajaniti - Sabhaparva 5, Vanaparva 150, Udyogaparva 33 and 34, Shantiparva 65 and 297, Anushasana parva 48 and 49
* Varnadharma - Shantiparva 60 and 297
* Shraddha - Striparva 26 and 27, Anushasana parva 87 to 95

=== दर्शनानि ॥ Darshana Shastras ===
The chaturdasha vidyas mention Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras as part of the the Veda Upangas. In the present context, considering all the Shad darshanas to be part of the veda Upangas, they have been discussed completely in this project.

Purva Mimamsa is commonly called as Mimamsa, while Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. Each Darshana is associated with a rishi, a preceptor, who gives its principles in the form of Sutras or short terse sentences embedded with a great meaning in them. Thus the shastra rachana paddhati or the writing format of shastras primarily involve the Sutras for which Bhashyam, a commentary and further on Vritti or Vartikas which are also explanatory notes are written by various authors. The object of all the darshanas is the same - to rescue men from sufferings of three kinds - Adibhoutika, Adhyatmika, Adidaivika.

The way to rescue propounded by these darshanas is also the same - removal of Avidya, which creates bandhana or bondage to Samsara, consequently union with the Supreme. The names used for Avidya, Ignorance, by different shastras are different but in essence all of them spell out the same situation of the mind. For example
*Nyaya calls it as Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम्), false knowledge
*Sankhya calls it Aviveka (अविवेकः), non-discrimination between Self and Real.
*Yoga and Vedanta call it (अविद्या), incorrect knowledge
Each darshana aims at the removal of Ignorance by acquiring and internalizing or experiencing the Jnana, whereupon Ananda (आनन्दः) is enjoyed in the state termed as Moksha. Each of these darshanas establish their concepts by providing pramanas or proofs. Although, there are about ten kinds of pramanas primarily six kinds of them are accepted by the six darshana shastras, called as [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]]. Brief introduction of the six darshana shastras is given below<ref name=":024">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref><ref name=":42">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Brief Information on the Shad Darshanas
!Darshana
!Deals with
!Rishi
!Authoritative Bhashyam
!Pramanas Accepted
!Important Points
|-
|[[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darshana]]
|System of Logic
|Gautama
|Vatsyayana
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
|Sutras divided in five books.
Knowledge is divided into 16 Padarthas

Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Vaiseshika Darsana|Vaiseshika Darshana]]
|System of Particulars
|Kanada
|Prashastapada
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
|Knowledge is divided into 6 Padarthas
Asatkaryavada
|-
|[[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya Darshana]]
|System of Numbers
|Kapila
|Samkhya Karika of Ishvara Krishna
Aniruddha Vijnanabhikshu
|Pratyaksha, Anumana
Aptavachana
|Dvaita siddhanta of Prakrti and Purusha and Viveka
Origin of the 25 principles - Mahat, Ahamkara, the Tanmatras and Purusha.

Satkaryavada

Nir-Isvaravada
|-
|Yoga Darshana
|System of Effort or of Union
|Patanjali
|Vyasa bhashyam
|Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda
|Sutras are 198 arranged in 4 padas. Aim is chittavrtti virodha (stop the movements of Chitta or manas)
Sa-Ishvara Samkhya siddhantam
|-
|[[Mimamsa Darsana|Mimamsa Darshana]]
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Jaimini
|Shabara bhashyam
|Prabhakara school : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana, Arthapatti
Kumarila school : 5 above and Abhava (totally 6)
|Concerned with karmakanda of the Veda. Mimamsa Sutras are divided into 12 books.
|-
|Vedanta
|System of Interpreting the Vedic texts
|Vyasa
|3 Schools : Advaita : Sri Shankaracharya Vishishtadvaita : Sri Ramanujam
Dvaita : Madhavacharya
|Advaita : 6 Pramanas
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita : 3 pramanas (pratyaksha, anumana and shabda)
|Concerned with the jnanakanda of the Veda and Ishvara. Brahmasutras are important texts.
|}

=== स्मृतिग्रन्थयः || Smrti Granthas or Dharmashastras ===
The Smritis prescribe certain acts and prohibit some others for a Hindu, according to one's birth and stage of life. The object of the Smritis is to purify the heart of a person and take him/her gradually to the supreme abode of immortality and make him/her perfect and free. These Smritis have varied from time to time. The injunctions and prohibitions of the Smritis are related to the particular social surroundings. As these surroundings and essential conditions of the Hindu society changed from time to time, new Smritis had to be compiled by the seers of different ages and different parts of India.<ref name=":0222">Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism</ref><blockquote>वर्णादिधर्मस्मरणं यत्र वेदाविरोधकम् । कीर्तनं चार्थशास्त्राणां स्मृतिः सा च प्रकीर्तिता । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>varṇādidharmasmaraṇaṁ yatra vedāvirodhakam । kīrtanaṁ cārthaśāstrāṇāṁ smr̥tiḥ sā ca prakīrtitā । (Shuk. Niti. 4.3.54)</blockquote><blockquote>आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः || १२.१०६ || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)<ref name=":4">Manu Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ārṣaṁ dharmopadeśaṁ ca vedaśāstrāvirodhinā । yastarkeṇānusaṁdhatte sa dharmaṁ veda netaraḥ || 12.106 || (Manu. Smrt. 12.106)</blockquote>
====Dharmasutras Vs Dharmashastras (Smrtis)====
Smrtis, the codified law books, otherwise known as Dharmashastras, are different texts as against the Dharmasutra works (Shrauta Sutras and Dharma Sutras) given in the Kalpas. Smrti texts have laid emphasis on the karmaushtana on the social front as compared to karmanushtana of an individual. These granthas contain information on the aspects of administration and governance, it may be said that as the number of kingdoms grew, so also the number of Smrti granthas.

Dharmasutras are the basis of composing Dharmashastra granthas. Dharmasutra granthas are cryptic, abbreviated with short explanations of the sutras, hence they required bhashyas or commentaries and tikas for understanding them.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras Contrasted<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. (1962) ''[https://archive.org/details/106533393DharmasutrasAStudyInTheirOriginAndDevelopmentSBanerjiCalcutta1962600dpiLossy/page/n15 Dharmasutras, A Study in their Origin and Development.]'' Calcutta : Punthi Pustak</ref>
!
!Dharmasutras
!Dharmashastras
|-
|Texts
|Part of Kalpa : Ex - Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Baudhayana
|Smrti granthas - Manusmrti, Yajnavalkya smrti
|-
|Form
|Composed in prose intermixed with slokas
|Composed as slokas (metrical form) exclusively
|-
|Language
|Language is प्राचीन (archaic )
|Language is अर्वाचीन (modern)
|-
|Arrangement of topics
|No arrangement into topics is seen though presented in an orderly manner
|Topics are given under distinct heads.
|}

==== Manava Dharmashastra ====
Another point of debate among the scholars is whether the book named Manava-dharmashastra (मनव-धर्मशास्त्रम्) and Manusmrti are one and the same. Both these texts have been authored by Manu, who is considered as the Adipurusha (first in the human race), as per Samhita and Brahmanas. However, the aspects found in Manava-dharmashastra, which are found in other ancient texts, are not to be seen in Manusmrti. Hence is believed by scholars that Manava-dharmashastra and Manusmrti are two different texts and that Manusmrti is founded on the principles given in Manava-dharmashastra.<ref name=":42222" />
====Number of Smritis====
Of such law-givers Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the most celebrated. Hindu society is founded on, and governed by the laws made by these three great seers. Of the [[Manu Smriti|Manu Smrti]], Yajnavalkya Smrti (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिः) and Parasara Smrti, Manu is the oldest law-giver. The Yajnavalkya Smriti follows the same general lines as the Manu Smriti and is next in importance to it. Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are universally accepted at the present time as authoritative works all over India. Yajnavalkya Smriti is chiefly consulted in all matters of Hindu Law and finds application in the Judicial System of the Government of India.

In ancient times the number of Smrtis must have been small.<ref name=":5" />
*Gautama mentions only Manu, although he speaks of dharmashastras (9.19).
*Vashishta names 5 smrtikaras - Gautama, Prajapati, Manu, Yama and Harita.
*Manu speaks of six authors besides himself namely - Atri, son of Utathya, Bhrugu, Vashishta, Vaikhanasa and Saunaka.
*Baudhayana names seven besides himself, as the authors of dharma.
*Apastamba mentions 10 smritikaras, some of whom are mere names their works are not available.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras, accepted by many scholars, however, as seen in the case of many other texts there are different versions of Smrti granthas. Yajnavalkya Smrti is probably one of the earliest Smrti which enumerated twenty expounders of dharma (including himself and counting Shanka and Likhita as two distinct persons) as seen in the following list<ref name=":5">Kane, Pandurang. Vaman. (1930) ''History of Dharmasastra, Volume One.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref><blockquote>मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीत याज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिराः । यमापस्तम्बसंवर्ताः कात्यायनबृहस्पती । । १.४ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.4)<ref>Yajnavalkya Smrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Adhyaya 1 Acharaadhyaya])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manvatriviṣṇuhārīta yājñavalkyośano'ṅgirāḥ । yamāpastambasaṁvartāḥ kātyāyanabr̥haspatī । । 1.4 । ।</blockquote><blockquote>पराशरव्यासशङ्ख लिखिता दक्षगौतमौ । शातातपो वसिष्ठश्च धर्मशास्त्रप्रयोजकाः । । १.५ । । (Yajn. Smrt. 1.5)</blockquote><blockquote>parāśaravyāsaśaṅkha likhitā dakṣagautamau । śātātapo vasiṣṭhaśca dharmaśāstraprayojakāḥ । । 1.5 । ।</blockquote>{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* Manu Smrti
* Atri Smrti
* Vishnu Smrti
* Harita Smrti
* Yajnavalkya Smrti
* Ushanas Smrti
* Angira Smrti
* Yama Smrti
* Apastamba Smrti
* Samvarta Smrti
* Katyayana Smrti
* Brhaspati Smrti
* Parashara Smrti
* Vyasa Smrti
* Shanka-Likhita Smrti
* Daksha Smrti
* Gautama Smrti
* Shatatapa Smrti
* Vasishta Smrti }}According to Sri. Chandrasekharendra Mahaswamiji,<ref name=":32222" /> there are 18 Smrtis given by - Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras, Pracetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, Apastamba and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas with their superhuman power and derived the Smrtis from them.

According to Dr. Gopal Reddy<ref name=":42222" />, the eighteen Smrtikartas are Manu, Yajnavalkya, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Ushanas, Angira, Yama, Katyayana, Brhaspati, Parasara, Vyasa, Daksha, Gautama, Vasishta, Narada, Bhrgu, and Angirasa.

Swami Sivananda<ref name=":0222" />, mentions that the eighteen Smrtis are those of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara, Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.

The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuga, those of Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga; those of Sankha and Likhita are for the Dvapara Yuga; and those of Parasara are for the Kali Yuga. The laws and rules which are based entirely upon our social positions, time and clime, must change with the changes in society and changing conditions of time and clime. Then only the progress of the Hindu society can be ensured.<ref name=":0222" />

== Other Smrti Works ==
Apart from these major texts, other works like Anukramanikas, Pratisakhyas, Dharmashastra Nibandhas like Nirnayasindhu, Dharmasindhu etc, Tamil vedas among other texts have expanded largely for the guidance of people to interpret the various aspects given in above discussed Smrti texts.
=== अनुक्रमणिकाः || Anukramanikas ===
For the protection of Veda mantras Anukramanika granthas (अनुक्रमणिकाग्रन्था-s) have been compiled. These Anukramanikas are lists that contain concise information about the Veda mantra's rishi, chandas and devatas. The most important rishis who contributed to creation of these lists include - Shaunaka (शौनकः), Katyayana (कात्यायनः). Though these Anukramanikas are not included Vedangas, these play an important role in the [[Preservation of the Vedas (वेदपरिरक्षणम्)|protection of vedas]].

In Rigveda, the rishi, chandas, devata, anuvaka (अनुवाकः), sukta (अनुवाकः) number, the name and important features are compiled in structured manner, in Anustup chandas (अनुष्टुप् छन्दस्). The phalasiddhi (फलसिद्धिः | benefits) of chanting particular mantras is also explained in detail. Such texts are available for other vedas also (Page 94 and 95 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />).

=== Nibandhanas ===
Kanchi Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Paramacharya, explains that some Smrtis do not contain instructions with regard to all observances. The matters explained in one Smrti may not be found in an other, thus giving rise to doubts in acharas which are to be cleared by using the works called "Dharmashastra Nibandhanas". These nibandhanas do not leave out any rite or dharma. Nirnayasindhu (by Kamalakara Bhatta), Vaidyanatha Dikshitiyam, Dharmasindhu are accepted and referred to authoritative texts in the present day.<ref name=":32222" />
== संवादः || Discussion ==
Traditionally, the Chaturdasha vidyas consider Puranas, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharmashastras as Veda Upangas.<ref name=":02222" /><ref name=":32222" /> However, due to similarity of names a few questions arise here
# Nyaya and Mimamsa shastras are mentioned under the classification of [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darsanas]] and as those among the Veda Upangas.
# Dharmasutras are given in Kalpas (as Vedangas) and Dharmashastras are mentioned as one among the Veda Upangas.
What are included in these texts?

Dr. N. Sivasenani of University of Hyderabad, presents a few thoughts about these questions <blockquote>''"Nyaya" should be taken to mean Nyaya-Vaiseshika-Sankhya and Yoga; and Mimamsa covers both Purva- and Uttara-mimamsas. Why should it be so? Based on the context. Further, Puranas include Mahabharata and Ramayana."''</blockquote><blockquote>''"In the Vedanga Kalpas, there are four kinds of Sutras - Shrauta- (dealing with vedic rites), Grhya- (dealing with 16 samskaras)-, Dharma- (dealing with secular matters) and Shulba- sutras. However, of these, Dharmasutras got expanded tremendously. Firstly, there are the eighteen Smritis - like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti and so on. Note that this enumeration is a Srmiti-work and not a Sutra-work such as Apastambasutras of Kalpas. Then these have further been expanded by huge commentaries. Further, omnibus volumes of "Nibandhas" came into existence which are a compilation of views of various Smritis and other authorities. Then since Nibandhas grew in volume, condensed manuals combining Srauta-, Grihya- and Dharma- sutra elements like Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu came about. So much so that today, Dharmasindhu is usually the first and last reference when a question of Dharma arises (example: when is Sivaratri this year or who are sapindas). Since this part alone grew in volume, it is listed separately under Dharmashastras."''</blockquote>To summarize
* It can be said that Nyaya and Mimamsa are Upangas (Chaturdasha Vidyas) and Darshana shastras (Shad Darsanas) and based on Vedas. The Dharmasutras of Kalpa Vedanga and the Dharmashastras of Upangas are the same texts. <ref name=":12" />
* Dharmasutras given under Kalpa Vedanga, for example : Apasthamba sutras (आपस्तम्बसूत्र-s) refer mainly to sutra works of dharmas associated with specific shrauta yajnika kriyas (श्रौतयाज्ञिकक्रियाः). These have been hugely expanded into Dharma-shastras (Smritis works), for example : Manu smriti. These refer to dharmas applicable to man in general society.
* While in Kalpas, '''Dharmasutras''' (classified under Vedanga) generally lay down the code of conduct to be followed by a person engaged in vaidika yagna kriyas, '''Dharmashastras''' (classified under Upangas) lay down the general moral code of conduct applicable to every human being. Also Dharmashastras include later day texts combining the different parts of Kalpas, codified into condensed versions as in Dharmasindhu and Nirnayasindhu (निर्णयसिन्धुः).
* Mimamsa is divided into Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa. Purva Mimamsa highlights the discriminating and decision making qualities of the Vedas by analysis. Here, Purva Mimamsa is generally what is considered for the term Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called as Vedanta, which is classified under the Jnanakanda (ज्ञानकाण्डः).
==References==
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[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Puranas]]