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Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

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Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":02">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>
== Introduction ==
Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometers per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time.

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.
== Source Texts for Physics in India ==
There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.
# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.
# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.
# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.
# '''[[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]]''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>
# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.
# '''[[Siddhanta Skandha (सिद्धान्त स्कन्ध)|Siddhanta granthas]]''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.
# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.
# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, [[Mahabharata (महाभारतम्)|Mahabharata]], Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.
##'''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.
##'''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.
##'''Natyashastra''' - describes various musical instruments and their acoustical characteristics
##'''Agasthya Samhita''' - describes electrical cells
== Padarthas in Vaiseshika Darshana ==
The Vaiseshika school, attributed to Acharya Kanada, developed one of the world's earliest systematic classification of properties of matter and relation between them. In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides substance which is a part of all knowable reality into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":02" />
# Substance (dravya)
# Quality (guna)
# Action (karma)
# Generality (sāmānya)
# Individuality (viśesa)
# Inherence (samavāya)
Later Vaiseshikas (Sridhara, udayana and Sivaditya) added one more category called Abhava or non-existence. Dravya, guna and karma are defined as Artha (which can be perceived) and they have real objective existence. The rest, samanya, visesha and samavaya are defined as budhyapeksha (products of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.

These categories provided a comprehensive schema for understanding the structure of the physical world having philosophical basis, combining metaphysics and proto-scientific observations. Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:
* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref name=":82">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* स्पर्शवान् वायुः । वैशेषिक-२,१.४ । Vayu (Air) has touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
*

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===
In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":92">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":82" />

rūparasagandhasparśāḥ saṃkhyāḥ parimāṇāni pṛthaktvaṃ saṃyogavibhāgau paratvāparatve buddhayaḥ sukhaduḥkhe icchādveṣau prayatnāśca guṇāḥ | vaiśeṣika-1,1.6 |</blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include
# रूप or form/shape/colour
# रस or taste
# गन्ध or smell
# स्पर्श or touch
# संख्या or numbers/counting
# परिमाणानि or various measures such as length, area, volume, weight etc.
# पृथक्त्वं is being distinguished (to be separated)
# संयोग is conjunction or joining (or combination)
# विभाग is disjunction, disjoining or division
# परत्व is being next (spatially next or temporally later or subsequent)
# अपरत्व is being previous (spatially previous or temporally previous or earlier)
# बुद्धयः intellects (several)
# सुख is happiness
# दुःख is sorrow
# इच्छा is desire
# द्वेष is aversion
# प्रयत्नाः relates to efforts
The first 11 (from rupa to aparatva) are the qualities of physical substances or entities (dravya). The last 6 (from Buddhi to Prayatna) are the qualities of the Mind and Self (they are considered dravyas). Prayatna (effort) is a quality of Self while the rest of the 5 are the qualities of the mind.

The first 11 qualities mentioned above are well known as physical properties in Physics and Chemistry. Conventionally, every substance is examined for the same physical properties. Quality of counting is fundamental for any material entity. The qualities of being previous and being next are related to Space and time also. Conjunctive and disjunctive interactions are very common in Physics and chemistry wherein two or more entities or substances can be combined to form a new entity or an existing entity can be decomposed into several individual entities.

Prashastapada elaborated further on Gunas and brought in additional Gunas as follows:<ref name=":92" />
# गुरुत्व - Gurutva having weight, heaviness
# द्रवत्व - Dravatva having liquidity or fluidity
# स्नेह - Moisture, softness, viscidity or stickiness
# संस्कार - trait, habit, impression
# धर्म - Dharma or merit
# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit
# शब्द - Sound
Gunas are also elaborated in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] by Acharya Chanaka and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]].
=== Air vs Space ===
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":02" />
=== Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===
Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space.<blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence. Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":32">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Time, space, Atma and mind are the eternal or nitya dravyas and none of them are perceivable by any of the sense organs is a basic definition in Vaiseshika. Although, these four eternal entities can only be conceived by the mind, they are real existent dravyas or entities. Time, space and akasa are incapable of motion and it is only the earth, water, fire and air (the four dravyas) and mind which are capable of motion.<blockquote>दिक्कालावाकाशं च क्रियावद्वैधर्म्यान्निष्क्रियाणि । वैशेषिक-५,२.२१ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Space, time, Akasa and Atman (indicated by the word "Cha") are void of action because of their difference from that which possesses activity.<ref name=":32" />

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.
== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as
# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations
# '''Rta or Natural Law''' as the transcendental and unitary principle of all motions (universal and individual)
# '''Yajna''' as the connective dynamic principle and nucleus of all evolution
# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.
These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.
=== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":12">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>
=== Rta ===
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practitioners of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energize the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":12" />

The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest (Potential Energy) changed to kinetic form (Kinetic Energy) and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.'' The term Kinetic Energy relates purely to motion and does not carry other meanings related to rta as in the Vedic context, i.e., rta represents motion charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose.<ref name=":22">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>

Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''.
Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda.

Dharma is science and nothing but science an most certainly not religion in the Vedic context.<ref>Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. (27-31) <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":22" />

rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":22" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

=== Yajna ===
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":12" />
=== Ap (Water) ===
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":12" />
=== Panchamahabhutas ===
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":12" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.
== Concept of Motion ==
=== Defining Motion based on Vaiseshika Principles and Prashastapada Bhashyam ===
Prashastapada in कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् prakarana<ref name=":102">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashyam]</ref> defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunction and disjunction i.e., change of place of particles (संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणम्)<ref name=":0">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co. (Chapter 2: Hindu ideas on mechanics pp. 129-132)</ref> and evolves a discussion of its characteristics properties.

एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं क्षणिकत्वं मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् अगुणवत्वं गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् असमवायिकारणत्वं स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं च प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं च विशेषः ।।

ekadravyavattvaṃ kṣaṇikatvaṃ mūrtadravyavṛttitvam aguṇavatvaṃ gurutvadravatvaprayatnasaṃyogajatvaṃ svakāryasaṃyogavirodhitvaṃ saṃyogavibhāganirapekṣakāraṇatvam asamavāyikāraṇatvaṃ svaparāśrayasamavetakāryārambhakatvaṃ samānajātīyānārambhakatvaṃ dravyānārambhakatvaṃ ca pratiniyatajātiyogitvam | digviśiṣṭakāryārambhakatvaṃ ca viśeṣaḥ ||

These properties may be stated as follows:<ref name=":42">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref><ref name=":112">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>
# एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं || ekadravyavattvaṃ - peculiarity of a single motion affecting a single body (at a given time) since its change of place at that moment is one and definite.
# क्षणिकत्वं || kṣaṇikatvaṃ - instantaneous change of place (simplest form of motion)
# मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् || mūrtadravyavṛttitvam - property of relating to a single body; the action of a composite whole is determined by the action of the constituent parts taken together
# अगुणवत्वं || aguṇavatvaṃ - a lack of gunas or qualities
# गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं || gurutva-dravatva-prayatna-saṃyogajatvaṃ - property of being generated by gravity, fluidity, volitional effort, and conjunctions (samyoga)
# स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं || svakārya-saṃyoga-virodhitvaṃ - property of being opposed by conjunctions caused by themselves
# संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् || saṃyoga-vibhāga-nirapekṣa-kāraṇatvam - property of acting as independent cause of conjunctions and disjunctions
# असमवायिकारणत्वं || asamavāyi-kāraṇatvaṃ - property of acting as non-inherent cause
# स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं || svaparāśraya-samaveta-kāryārambhakatvaṃ - property of initiating effects (by conjunctions and disjunctions) in their own as well as in other substrates
# समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं || samāna-jātīyānārambhakatvaṃ - inability to initiate its own kind
# द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं || dravyānārambhakatvaṃ - inability to generate motion in other bodies
# प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं || pratiniyatajātiyogitvam | digviśiṣṭakāryārambhakatvaṃ - ability to classify into distinct types (of motion) characterized by directions of initial motion (linear, upwards, contraction, spreading etc)
Prashastapada defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunctions and disjunctions i.e., a change of place of particles. He regards karma (motion) as instantaneous (क्षणिक), distinguishing it from impressed motion, momentum (vega) which is a persistent tendency (Samskara) and implies a series of motions. Accordingly, in one and the same particle there can be only one motion at any given moment, since its change of place at that moment is one and definite. Motion of a particle or object is one but from the point of view of the Observer, there may be many motions involved, e.g., a falling leaf driven by wind may have a rotatory or vibratory motion and a vertical downward motion at the same time. Here each particle of the leaf taken separately has only one motion or change of place at the same moment, but from Observer's stance, the particles have a rotatory or vibratory motion in one relation and the leaf as whole has a downward motion in another relation.<ref name=":0" />
=== Cosmic Motion ===
In the discussion about Rta in the earlier section, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":42" /> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,
=== Atoms are in a state of motion ===
Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":62">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":42" />
* ability to act as substratum of qualities/attributes
* being endowed with motion (kriyatattva)
* to provide an inherent or material cause
Parispanda sometimes stands for motion molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (e.g. vibration). All action, operation, work (Kriya, Vyapara) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff.<ref name=":112" />
=== Karma or Activity in terms of Physical Motion ===
'''Three characteristics of Karma''' or activity defined as per Vaiseshika Sutras are<blockquote>एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.17)<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>The three characteristics are
# Activity depends on substance
# Activity does not possess any quality inherently. It is substance that possess guṇa and karma.
# Movements cause disjunction (Vibhāga) of a substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (saṃyoga) with a new position. Thus activity brings out conjunction and disjunction.
-In a living organism, karma is initiated from within by Effort (Prayatna).

-In a non-living organism, karma is not initiated from within and needs an external agent to initiate. This is because effort (Prayatna) is a quality of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Ātman]].

'''Kinds of Karma''': Motion in the sense of activity is of five kinds.<blockquote>उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>They are<ref name=":92" />
* Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement, upward thrust)
* Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement, downward thrust)
* Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion, pulling towards a point)
* Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension, spreading, transmission)
* Gamana (general movements)
It is interesting to see the definition of general motion distinguished from the other four specific categories of motion. Prashastapada identified many more categories of motion as follows:<blockquote>गमनग्रहणाद्भ्रमण-रेचन-स्पन्दनोर्ध्वज्वलनतिर्यक्पतननमनोन्नमनादयो गमनविशेषाः । (Prashastapada Bhashya<ref name=":102" />)</blockquote>While motion (gamana) can mean, in general, any type of motion, as defined in a given context, Prashastapada has identified some well known additional categories of motion that are universally observable and referred to in later sutras of Vaiseshika:<ref name=":92" />
* भ्रमणम् or circular motion or rotation
* रेचनम् or gushing out or expulsion
* स्पंदनम् is the harmonic motion or beat (as in the case of heart beat or हृदयस्पंदनम्)
* ऊर्ध्वज्वलनम् or upward burning (of flame)
* तिर्यक्पतनम् or falling backwards
* नमनम् or bending forward
* उन्नमनम् rising upward
'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":92" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":92" />
* having existence (सद्)
* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)
* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)
* being the कारणं or cause (of something which is a result or effect)
* being सामान्य or generalized and विशेषवत् or specialized
Prashastapada adds two more properties to the above namely अभिधेयत्व and ज्ञेयत्व i.e., naming (them) and knowing (them). It meaning being identified with a name and also being known.
=== Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth ===
The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>
=== Gravitation ===
The movement as of a falling body is caused by gravity (गुरुत्वम्) which in the astronomical treatises of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Bhaskara is ascribed to the attraction (आकर्षण) the pulling force, exercised by the earth on a material body. The force of gravity may be counteracted by volition (विधारकप्रयत्नम्), as in holding up the hand, or by contact, as when a body rests on a support, or by Vega (वेग), impressed motion, as in the flying arrow which is kept from falling by the motion impressed on it.<ref name=":0" />

Gravity with contact produces pressure, as when the earth sinks under a heavy load.

Udyotakara, the commentator on the Nyaya-Bhashya states that a heavier body falls to the ground with greater Vega (and velocity) than one that is lighter. Udyotakara also holds, and Sridhara agrees with him, that the gravity (गुरुत्वम्) of a body (avayavi) as a whole composed of particles (avayavah) is not the same as the sum of the gravities of the particles. There is a difference in amount which is, however, so small as to be imperceptible.<ref name=":1">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co. (Chapter 2: Hindu ideas on mechanics pp. 140-142)</ref>

Prashastapada makes interesting statements about the motion of falling bodies. Such motion is produced by gravity alone. This leads to an impressed motion (samskara) in the same direction. As the force of gravity continues to operate the motion of the falling bodies is due to both gravity and vega, acting in the same direction from the second instant onwards. The resultant motion is one, but both the causes must be conceived as contributing to the resultant. Seal, notes that a good foundation was laid for the explanation of accelerated motion of falling bodies but Galileo's discovery was wanting and so was the experimental proof.<ref name=":42" />

In the case of the flying arrow or other projectiles, however, the impulsive force that produces vega counteracts the force of the gravity; in the end, vega is lost through friction with air, and then gravity brings the arrow to the ground.<ref name=":1" />

=== Vega: Inertia, Momentum and Acceleration ===
A motion has been conceived as a change of place in a particle, instantaneous and incapable of producing another motion. But when motion is caused by impact (abhighata) or impelling push (nodana) it develops a samskara or persistent tendency to motion. This persistent tendency of a moving body to continue its motion has been called vega. That vega is a samskara has been clearly stated by Prashastapada. According to him, samskara is of three types<ref name=":42" />
* vega or momentum
* bhavana or mental impression
* sthitisthapaka or elasticity
The concept of vega closely fits in with the modern concept of momentum. Vaiseshikas accept one and the same samskara lasting till the cessation of motion. Udyotakara and other writers of the Nyaya school suppose a series of samskaras, each one generating the one that succeeds it. Nyaya view implies the modern idea of acceleration. The power of samskara diminishes by doing work against the counteracting forces and gradually when it gets exhausted, the moving body comes to rest. Thus Vega corresponds to inertia in some respects and to momentum (impressed motion) in others. It is the nearest approach to Newton's first law of motion.<ref name=":42" />
== Light ==
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.<ref name=":52">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>
* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Prakasha''' refers to the illuminating aspect of consciousness. Prakasha is the light that illuminates our thoughts, feelings, and experiences and allows us to know and understand the world around us.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.<ref name=":52" />
== ऊर्जा तापश्च ॥ Energy and Heat ==
Vedic Physics describes Prakriti as the material cause of the the creation while in modern physics it is called Energy. Affected by the divine touch of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakriti]] the inert unconscious entity is set into motion, i.e., rta, and invariably follows the creative process. Characteristics of Prakriti include having eternal existence and capability of conserving itself in any of the three states of its being namely<ref name=":22" />
* existence
* motion
* and transformation to any form of matter
'''Potential and Kinetic Energy:''' In many Veda mantras, Agni represents the forms of Energy.<ref name=":62" /> In Yajurveda<blockquote>अग्निरमृतो नि धायि । (Yaju. Veda. 12.24)<ref name=":72">Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref> अग्निरमृतोऽभवद् वयोभिर् । (Yaju. Veda. 12.25)</blockquote>Meaning - Agni (Energy form) is eternal and indestructible. It remains indestructible in the mortal world or jagat, due to its potential energy denoted by the term वयस्।

Earlier it was seen how Rta is understood as Kinetic Energy.

'''Transformation of Energy''':<ref name=":62" /> Vedas proclaim that Agni (in the form of Energy) is One; it undergoes transformation and hence various are its names. It has the capability to all activities, hence it is called Visvakarma. Urja or energy takes many forms hence it is called Vishvarupa.<blockquote>यो देवानां नामधा एक एव.. ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda 10.82.3)<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A8 Mandala 10 Sukta 82])</ref> स्तीर्णा अस्य संहतो विश्वरूपा । (Rig. Veda. 3.1.7)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9.%E0%A5%A7 Mandala 3 Sukta 1])</ref></blockquote>'''Omnipresence of Energy''':<ref name=":62" /> All [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]] proclaim that Agni imparts the quality of movement or chetana and is all-pervading in every atom of the Dyulok (heavenly), Antariksha (Celestial region) and Earth. Due to this energy, there is movement, existence and transformation in every particle. Hence Agni is said to pervade the heavens and earth with the core activity of causing movement.<blockquote>रोदसी भानुना भात्यन्तः ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.45.4)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AB Mandala 10 Sukta 45])</ref> विश्वस्य केतुर् भुवनस्य गर्भऽ आ रोदसी ऽ अपृणाज् जायमानः । (Yajurveda. 12.23)<ref name=":72" /></blockquote>'''Power of Expansion''':<ref name=":62" /> Yajurveda recounts the expansive quality of extreme heat (denoted by the term त्वेषः) energy in Agni, which causes the expansion of the universe/world.

अग्ने ... येनान्तरिक्षम् उर्व् आततन्थ त्वेषः स भानुर् अर्णवो नृचक्षाः ॥ (Yajurveda. 12.48)<ref name=":72" />

'''Forms of Energy''': Yajurveda talks about the "three bodies" or forms of Agni.
# या ते अग्नेऽयःशया तनूः - Ayas (अयस्) here means dhatu or metal; Agni or Energy within the metals. The core of the earth is described as ball of metallic fire. ('''Terrestrial Metallic Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने रजःशया तनूः - Rajas (रजस्) denotes molecules in space and the energy form is indicated by Vidyut or Electricity, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. ('''Atmospheric Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने हरिशया तनूः - The term Hari (हरि) represents Sun and sunrays. The heat energy residing in Sun and the warmth and heat of sun all represent the heat form of energy. ('''Solar Form of Energy''')
== Interesting Vedic knowledge of Surya ==
'''Solar Energy''': Vedic knowledge of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] and its energy is extensive according to Dwivedi.<ref name=":62" /> He provides the textual references to the following aspects

- सप्त आदित्या: Sapta Aditya (सप्त दिशो नानासूर्याः...), '''there are seven suns''' according to Rigveda (9.114.3) and Atharvaveda mentions that the central Surya is Kashyap, while Taittriya Aranyaja (1.7.1) gives the names of these seven suns.

- '''Hydrogen and Helium as the energy source''': सोमेन - आदित्या बलिन: । (Atha. Veda. 14.1.2) Dwivedi refers Soma to Hydrogen from which Sun gains its energy. Yajurveda (9.3)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9])</ref> refers two tattvas or nature of Sun's energy that exist in Surya - सूर्ये सन्तं समाहितम्
# "अपां रसम्" meaning that which is the essence of Ap or water in a gaseous form denoted by the term "उद्वयस्" Udvayas. These in modern terms refer to Hydrogen (split from water) in a gaseous form.
# "अपां रसस्य यो रस:" meaning that which is the essence of the essence of Ap which in modern terms indicates Helium.
- '''Sun spots''': Rigvedic terms (Rig. Veda. 1.164.14) such as चक्षु (मंडल, घेरा) रजस् (धूल, धब्ब) indicate that Surya is associated with spots, a fact identified since early ancient times.

- Sun-rays: The seven horses of Surya represent the seven rays of the sun.<blockquote>अव दिवस्तारयन्ति सप्त सूर्यस्य रश्मयः । आपः समुद्रिया धारास्तास्ते शल्यमसिस्रसन् ॥१॥<ref>Atharva Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Kanda 7 Sukta 112])</ref></blockquote>Many such concepts require further studies and exploration in terms of modern sciences.
== Electricity ==
Different kinds of electricity

• Tadita (तडित) Generated by rubbing silk cloths

• Saudamini (सौदामिनी ) Generated by rubbing two gems

• Vidyut (विद्युत) Generated from thunder

• Shatakumbhi (शतकुंभी) Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)

• Hrdani (हृदनी) Stored electricity with portable properties

• Ashani (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)
=== Construction of Electric Cell ===
It is mentioned by some scholars that Agasthya described how to make an electric battery and separate water into oxygen and hydrogen.<ref name=":52" /><ref>Ali, T., Afrin, D., & Gain, J. (2024). The Contribution of Ancient India to the Advancement of Modern physics: A Comprehensive study. ''International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation'', 245–252. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17613/75bc-9552</nowiki></ref><blockquote>संस्थाप्य मृण्मये पात्रे ताम्रपात्रं सुसंस्कृतम्‌। छादयेच्छिखिग्रीवेन चार्दाभि: काष्ठापांसुभि:॥</blockquote>A clay pot was covered with a clean copper plate, copper sulfate, and moist sawdust. The cathode, Mitra, and the anode, Varuna, were zinc amalgam sheets placed on top of these layers. To boost electricity, 100 Shata Kumbha jars were linked. As the reaction occurred, water split into Oxygen (pranavayu) and Hydrogen (udanavayu). In an airtight cloth, hydrogen gas was collected for aerodynamic use.

However, the shloka has been unverified at the time of compilation of this article. In the reference<ref>Jha, B. (Ed.). (2009). ''Agastya Samhita''. Mahavir Mandir Prakashan. (p. 30-32) <nowiki>https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/agastya-samhita-sage-agastya-bhavanath-jha/Agastya%20Samhita%20-%20Sage%20Agastya%20%2C%20Bhavanath%20Jha.pdf</nowiki></ref> of the text '''Agastya samhita, edited by Pt. Bhavanath Jha''', Acharya Kishore Kunal in his preface discussed the topic of Agasthya samhita's association with the usage and preparation of dry battery cell. He brings into context several aspects of scholarly discussions about Varuna, Pranavayu and Udanavayu that throw light on the later day interpolations and wrong attributions of electric batteries to Agastya Samhita. It was shown how Agasthya samhita deals with yoga and higher philosophical contexts and does not contain aspects of Physics. This information he mentions was posted by Chinmay Yuva Kendra in 2006 in a website, under the heading "Ancient Indian Approach to Science" as a part of Chronicles of Hinduism series.
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Physics]]

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

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Fordharma: adding content

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Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":02">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>
== Introduction ==
Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometers per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time.

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.
== Source Texts for Physics in India ==
There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.
# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.
# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.
# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.
# '''[[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]]''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>
# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.
# '''[[Siddhanta Skandha (सिद्धान्त स्कन्ध)|Siddhanta granthas]]''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.
# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.
# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, [[Mahabharata (महाभारतम्)|Mahabharata]], Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.
##'''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.
##'''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.
##'''Natyashastra''' - describes various musical instruments and their acoustical characteristics
##'''Agasthya Samhita''' - describes electrical cells
== Padarthas in Vaiseshika Darshana ==
The Vaiseshika school, attributed to Acharya Kanada, developed one of the world's earliest systematic classification of properties of matter and relation between them. In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides substance which is a part of all knowable reality into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":02" />
# Substance (dravya)
# Quality (guna)
# Action (karma)
# Generality (sāmānya)
# Individuality (viśesa)
# Inherence (samavāya)
Later Vaiseshikas (Sridhara, udayana and Sivaditya) added one more category called Abhava or non-existence. Dravya, guna and karma are defined as Artha (which can be perceived) and they have real objective existence. The rest, samanya, visesha and samavaya are defined as budhyapeksha (products of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.

These categories provided a comprehensive schema for understanding the structure of the physical world having philosophical basis, combining metaphysics and proto-scientific observations. Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:
* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref name=":82">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* स्पर्शवान् वायुः । वैशेषिक-२,१.४ । Vayu (Air) has touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
*

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===
In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":92">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":82" />

rūparasagandhasparśāḥ saṃkhyāḥ parimāṇāni pṛthaktvaṃ saṃyogavibhāgau paratvāparatve buddhayaḥ sukhaduḥkhe icchādveṣau prayatnāśca guṇāḥ | vaiśeṣika-1,1.6 |</blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include
# रूप or form/shape/colour
# रस or taste
# गन्ध or smell
# स्पर्श or touch
# संख्या or numbers/counting
# परिमाणानि or various measures such as length, area, volume, weight etc.
# पृथक्त्वं is being distinguished (to be separated)
# संयोग is conjunction or joining (or combination)
# विभाग is disjunction, disjoining or division
# परत्व is being next (spatially next or temporally later or subsequent)
# अपरत्व is being previous (spatially previous or temporally previous or earlier)
# बुद्धयः intellects (several)
# सुख is happiness
# दुःख is sorrow
# इच्छा is desire
# द्वेष is aversion
# प्रयत्नाः relates to efforts
The first 11 (from rupa to aparatva) are the qualities of physical substances or entities (dravya). The last 6 (from Buddhi to Prayatna) are the qualities of the Mind and Self (they are considered dravyas). Prayatna (effort) is a quality of Self while the rest of the 5 are the qualities of the mind.

The first 11 qualities mentioned above are well known as physical properties in Physics and Chemistry. Conventionally, every substance is examined for the same physical properties. Quality of counting is fundamental for any material entity. The qualities of being previous and being next are related to Space and time also. Conjunctive and disjunctive interactions are very common in Physics and chemistry wherein two or more entities or substances can be combined to form a new entity or an existing entity can be decomposed into several individual entities.

Prashastapada elaborated further on Gunas and brought in additional Gunas as follows:<ref name=":92" />
# गुरुत्व - Gurutva having weight, heaviness
# द्रवत्व - Dravatva having liquidity or fluidity
# स्नेह - Moisture, softness, viscidity or stickiness
# संस्कार - trait, habit, impression
# धर्म - Dharma or merit
# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit
# शब्द - Sound
Gunas are also elaborated in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] by Acharya Chanaka and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]].
=== Air vs Space ===
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":02" />
=== Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===
Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space.<blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence. Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":32">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Time, space, Atma and mind are the eternal or nitya dravyas and none of them are perceivable by any of the sense organs is a basic definition in Vaiseshika. Although, these four eternal entities can only be conceived by the mind, they are real existent dravyas or entities. Time, space and akasa are incapable of motion and it is only the earth, water, fire and air (the four dravyas) and mind which are capable of motion.<blockquote>दिक्कालावाकाशं च क्रियावद्वैधर्म्यान्निष्क्रियाणि । वैशेषिक-५,२.२१ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Space, time, Akasa and Atman (indicated by the word "Cha") are void of action because of their difference from that which possesses activity.<ref name=":32" />

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.
== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as
# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations
# '''Rta or Natural Law''' as the transcendental and unitary principle of all motions (universal and individual)
# '''Yajna''' as the connective dynamic principle and nucleus of all evolution
# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.
These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.
=== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":12">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>
=== Rta ===
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practitioners of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energize the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":12" />

The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest (Potential Energy) changed to kinetic form (Kinetic Energy) and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.'' The term Kinetic Energy relates purely to motion and does not carry other meanings related to rta as in the Vedic context, i.e., rta represents motion charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose.<ref name=":22">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>

Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''.
Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda.

Dharma is science and nothing but science an most certainly not religion in the Vedic context.<ref>Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. (27-31) <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":22" />

rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":22" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

=== Yajna ===
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":12" />
=== Ap (Water) ===
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":12" />
=== Panchamahabhutas ===
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":12" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.
== Concept of Motion ==
=== Defining Motion based on Vaiseshika Principles and Prashastapada Bhashyam ===
Prashastapada in कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् prakarana<ref name=":102">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashyam]</ref> defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunction and disjunction i.e., change of place of particles (संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणम्)<ref>Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co. (Chapter 2: Hindu ideas on mechanics pp. 129-131)</ref> and evolves a discussion of its characteristics properties.

एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं क्षणिकत्वं मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् अगुणवत्वं गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् असमवायिकारणत्वं स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं च प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं च विशेषः ।।

ekadravyavattvaṃ kṣaṇikatvaṃ mūrtadravyavṛttitvam aguṇavatvaṃ gurutvadravatvaprayatnasaṃyogajatvaṃ svakāryasaṃyogavirodhitvaṃ saṃyogavibhāganirapekṣakāraṇatvam asamavāyikāraṇatvaṃ svaparāśrayasamavetakāryārambhakatvaṃ samānajātīyānārambhakatvaṃ dravyānārambhakatvaṃ ca pratiniyatajātiyogitvam | digviśiṣṭakāryārambhakatvaṃ ca viśeṣaḥ ||

These properties may be stated as follows:<ref name=":42">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref><ref name=":112">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>
# एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं || ekadravyavattvaṃ - peculiarity of a single motion affecting a single body (at a given time) since its change of place at that moment is one and definite.
# क्षणिकत्वं || kṣaṇikatvaṃ - instantaneous change of place (simplest form of motion)
# मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् || mūrtadravyavṛttitvam - property of relating to a single body; the action of a composite whole is determined by the action of the constituent parts taken together
# अगुणवत्वं || aguṇavatvaṃ - a lack of gunas or qualities
# गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं || gurutva-dravatva-prayatna-saṃyogajatvaṃ - property of being generated by gravity, fluidity, volitional effort, and conjunctions (samyoga)
# स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं || svakārya-saṃyoga-virodhitvaṃ - property of being opposed by conjunctions caused by themselves
# संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् || saṃyoga-vibhāga-nirapekṣa-kāraṇatvam - property of acting as independent cause of conjunctions and disjunctions
# असमवायिकारणत्वं || asamavāyi-kāraṇatvaṃ - property of acting as non-inherent cause
# स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं || svaparāśraya-samaveta-kāryārambhakatvaṃ - property of initiating effects (by conjunctions and disjunctions) in their own as well as in other substrates
# समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं || samāna-jātīyānārambhakatvaṃ - inability to initiate its own kind
# द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं || dravyānārambhakatvaṃ - inability to generate motion in other bodies
# प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं || pratiniyatajātiyogitvam | digviśiṣṭakāryārambhakatvaṃ - ability to classify into distinct types (of motion) characterized by directions of initial motion (linear, upwards, contraction, spreading etc)
Prashastapada defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunctions and disjunctions i.e., a change of place of particles. He regards motion as instantaneous, distinguishing it from impressed motion, and momentum (vega) which is a persistent tendency (Samskara) and implies a series of motions. Motion of a particle or object is one but from the point of view of the Observer, there may be many motions involved, e.g., a falling leaf driven by wind may have a rotatory or vibratory motion and a vertical downward motion at the same time. Here each particle of the leaf taken separately has only one motion or change of place at the same moment, but from Observer's stance, the particles have a rotatory or vibratory motion in one relation and the leaf as whole has a downward motion in another relation.<ref name=":112" />
=== Cosmic Motion ===
In the discussion about Rta in the earlier section, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":42" /> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,
=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===
Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":62">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":42" />
* ability to act as substratum of qualities/attributes
* being endowed with motion (kriyatattva)
* to provide an inherent or material cause
Parispanda sometimes stands for motion molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (e.g. vibration). All action, operation, work (Kriya, Vyapara) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff.<ref name=":112" />
=== Karma or Activity in terms of Physical Motion ===
'''Three characteristics of Karma''' or activity defined as per Vaiseshika Sutras are<blockquote>एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.17)<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>The three characteristics are
# Activity depends on substance
# Activity does not possess any quality inherently. It is substance that possess guṇa and karma.
# Movements cause disjunction (Vibhāga) of a substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (saṃyoga) with a new position. Thus activity brings out conjunction and disjunction.
-In a living organism, karma is initiated from within by Effort (Prayatna).

-In a non-living organism, karma is not initiated from within and needs an external agent to initiate. This is because effort (Prayatna) is a quality of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Ātman]].

'''Kinds of Karma''': Motion in the sense of activity is of five kinds.<blockquote>उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>They are<ref name=":92" />
* Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement, upward thrust)
* Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement, downward thrust)
* Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion, pulling towards a point)
* Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension, spreading, transmission)
* Gamana (general movements)
It is interesting to see the definition of general motion distinguished from the other four specific categories of motion. Prashastapada identified many more categories of motion as follows:<blockquote>गमनग्रहणाद्भ्रमण-रेचन-स्पन्दनोर्ध्वज्वलनतिर्यक्पतननमनोन्नमनादयो गमनविशेषाः । (Prashastapada Bhashya<ref name=":102" />)</blockquote>While motion (gamana) can mean, in general, any type of motion, as defined in a given context, Prashastapada has identified some well known additional categories of motion that are universally observable and referred to in later sutras of Vaiseshika:<ref name=":92" />
* भ्रमणम् or circular motion or rotation
* रेचनम् or gushing out or expulsion
* स्पंदनम् is the harmonic motion or beat (as in the case of heart beat or हृदयस्पंदनम्)
* ऊर्ध्वज्वलनम् or upward burning (of flame)
* तिर्यक्पतनम् or falling backwards
* नमनम् or bending forward
* उन्नमनम् rising upward
'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":92" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":92" />
* having existence (सद्)
* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)
* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)
* being the कारणं or cause (of something which is a result or effect)
* being सामान्य or generalized and विशेषवत् or specialized
Prashastapada adds two more properties to the above namely अभिधेयत्व and ज्ञेयत्व i.e., naming (them) and knowing (them). It meaning being identified with a name and also being known.
=== Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth ===
The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>
=== Gravitation ===

=== Vega: Inertia, Momentum and Acceleration ===
A motion has been conceived as a change of place in a particle, instantaneous and incapable of producing another motion. But when motion is caused by impact (abhighata) or impelling push (nodana) it develops a samskara or persistent tendency to motion. This persistent tendency of a moving body to continue its motion has been called vega. That vega is a samskara has been clearly stated by Prashastapada. According to him, samskara is of three types<ref name=":42" />
* vega or momentum
* bhavana or mental impression
* sthitisthapaka or elasticity
The concept of vega closely fits in with the modern concept of momentum. Vaiseshikas accept one and the same samskara lasting till the cessation of motion. Uddyotakara and other writiers of the Nyaya school suppose a series of samskaras, each one generating the one that succeeds it. Nyaya view implies the modern idea of acceleration. The power of samskara diminishes by doing work against the counteracting forces and gradually when it gets exhausted, the moving body comes to rest. Thus Vega corresponds to inertia in some respects and to momentum (impressed motion) in others. It is the nearest approach to Newton's first law of motion.<ref name=":42" />
== Light ==
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.<ref name=":52">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>
* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Prakasha''' refers to the illuminating aspect of consciousness. Prakasha is the light that illuminates our thoughts, feelings, and experiences and allows us to know and understand the world around us.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.<ref name=":52" />
== ऊर्जा तापश्च ॥ Energy and Heat ==
Vedic Physics describes Prakriti as the material cause of the the creation while in modern physics it is called Energy. Affected by the divine touch of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakriti]] the inert unconscious entity is set into motion, i.e., rta, and invariably follows the creative process. Characteristics of Prakriti include having eternal existence and capability of conserving itself in any of the three states of its being namely<ref name=":22" />
* existence
* motion
* and transformation to any form of matter
'''Potential and Kinetic Energy:''' In many Veda mantras, Agni represents the forms of Energy.<ref name=":62" /> In Yajurveda<blockquote>अग्निरमृतो नि धायि । (Yaju. Veda. 12.24)<ref name=":72">Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref> अग्निरमृतोऽभवद् वयोभिर् । (Yaju. Veda. 12.25)</blockquote>Meaning - Agni (Energy form) is eternal and indestructible. It remains indestructible in the mortal world or jagat, due to its potential energy denoted by the term वयस्।

Earlier it was seen how Rta is understood as Kinetic Energy.

'''Transformation of Energy''':<ref name=":62" /> Vedas proclaim that Agni (in the form of Energy) is One; it undergoes transformation and hence various are its names. It has the capability to all activities, hence it is called Visvakarma. Urja or energy takes many forms hence it is called Vishvarupa.<blockquote>यो देवानां नामधा एक एव.. ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda 10.82.3)<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A8 Mandala 10 Sukta 82])</ref> स्तीर्णा अस्य संहतो विश्वरूपा । (Rig. Veda. 3.1.7)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9.%E0%A5%A7 Mandala 3 Sukta 1])</ref></blockquote>'''Omnipresence of Energy''':<ref name=":62" /> All [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]] proclaim that Agni imparts the quality of movement or chetana and is all-pervading in every atom of the Dyulok (heavenly), Antariksha (Celestial region) and Earth. Due to this energy, there is movement, existence and transformation in every particle. Hence Agni is said to pervade the heavens and earth with the core activity of causing movement.<blockquote>रोदसी भानुना भात्यन्तः ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.45.4)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AB Mandala 10 Sukta 45])</ref> विश्वस्य केतुर् भुवनस्य गर्भऽ आ रोदसी ऽ अपृणाज् जायमानः । (Yajurveda. 12.23)<ref name=":72" /></blockquote>'''Power of Expansion''':<ref name=":62" /> Yajurveda recounts the expansive quality of extreme heat (denoted by the term त्वेषः) energy in Agni, which causes the expansion of the universe/world.

अग्ने ... येनान्तरिक्षम् उर्व् आततन्थ त्वेषः स भानुर् अर्णवो नृचक्षाः ॥ (Yajurveda. 12.48)<ref name=":72" />

'''Forms of Energy''': Yajurveda talks about the "three bodies" or forms of Agni.
# या ते अग्नेऽयःशया तनूः - Ayas (अयस्) here means dhatu or metal; Agni or Energy within the metals. The core of the earth is described as ball of metallic fire. ('''Terrestrial Metallic Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने रजःशया तनूः - Rajas (रजस्) denotes molecules in space and the energy form is indicated by Vidyut or Electricity, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. ('''Atmospheric Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने हरिशया तनूः - The term Hari (हरि) represents Sun and sunrays. The heat energy residing in Sun and the warmth and heat of sun all represent the heat form of energy. ('''Solar Form of Energy''')
== Interesting Vedic knowledge of Surya ==
'''Solar Energy''': Vedic knowledge of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] and its energy is extensive according to Dwivedi.<ref name=":62" /> He provides the textual references to the following aspects

- सप्त आदित्या: Sapta Aditya (सप्त दिशो नानासूर्याः...), '''there are seven suns''' according to Rigveda (9.114.3) and Atharvaveda mentions that the central Surya is Kashyap, while Taittriya Aranyaja (1.7.1) gives the names of these seven suns.

- '''Hydrogen and Helium as the energy source''': सोमेन - आदित्या बलिन: । (Atha. Veda. 14.1.2) Dwivedi refers Soma to Hydrogen from which Sun gains its energy. Yajurveda (9.3)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9])</ref> refers two tattvas or nature of Sun's energy that exist in Surya - सूर्ये सन्तं समाहितम्
# "अपां रसम्" meaning that which is the essence of Ap or water in a gaseous form denoted by the term "उद्वयस्" Udvayas. These in modern terms refer to Hydrogen (split from water) in a gaseous form.
# "अपां रसस्य यो रस:" meaning that which is the essence of the essence of Ap which in modern terms indicates Helium.
- '''Sun spots''': Rigvedic terms (Rig. Veda. 1.164.14) such as चक्षु (मंडल, घेरा) रजस् (धूल, धब्ब) indicate that Surya is associated with spots, a fact identified since early ancient times.

- Sun-rays: The seven horses of Surya represent the seven rays of the sun.<blockquote>अव दिवस्तारयन्ति सप्त सूर्यस्य रश्मयः । आपः समुद्रिया धारास्तास्ते शल्यमसिस्रसन् ॥१॥<ref>Atharva Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Kanda 7 Sukta 112])</ref></blockquote>Many such concepts require further studies and exploration in terms of modern sciences.
== Electricity ==
Different kinds of electricity

• Tadita (तडित) Generated by rubbing silk cloths

• Saudamini (सौदामिनी ) Generated by rubbing two gems

• Vidyut (विद्युत) Generated from thunder

• Shatakumbhi (शतकुंभी) Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)

• Hrdani (हृदनी) Stored electricity with portable properties

• Ashani (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)
=== Construction of Electric Cell ===
It is mentioned by some scholars that Agasthya described how to make an electric battery and separate water into oxygen and hydrogen.<ref name=":52" /><ref>Ali, T., Afrin, D., & Gain, J. (2024). The Contribution of Ancient India to the Advancement of Modern physics: A Comprehensive study. ''International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation'', 245–252. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17613/75bc-9552</nowiki></ref><blockquote>संस्थाप्य मृण्मये पात्रे ताम्रपात्रं सुसंस्कृतम्‌। छादयेच्छिखिग्रीवेन चार्दाभि: काष्ठापांसुभि:॥</blockquote>A clay pot was covered with a clean copper plate, copper sulfate, and moist sawdust. The cathode, Mitra, and the anode, Varuna, were zinc amalgam sheets placed on top of these layers. To boost electricity, 100 Shata Kumbha jars were linked. As the reaction occurred, water split into Oxygen (pranavayu) and Hydrogen (udanavayu). In an airtight cloth, hydrogen gas was collected for aerodynamic use.

However, the shloka has been unverified at the time of compilation of this article. In the reference<ref>Jha, B. (Ed.). (2009). ''Agastya Samhita''. Mahavir Mandir Prakashan. (p. 30-32) <nowiki>https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/agastya-samhita-sage-agastya-bhavanath-jha/Agastya%20Samhita%20-%20Sage%20Agastya%20%2C%20Bhavanath%20Jha.pdf</nowiki></ref> of the text '''Agastya samhita, edited by Pt. Bhavanath Jha''', Acharya Kishore Kunal in his preface discussed the topic of Agasthya samhita's association with the usage and preparation of dry battery cell. He brings into context several aspects of scholarly discussions about Varuna, Pranavayu and Udanavayu that throw light on the later day interpolations and wrong attributions of electric batteries to Agastya Samhita. It was shown how Agasthya samhita deals with yoga and higher philosophical contexts and does not contain aspects of Physics. This information he mentions was posted by Chinmay Yuva Kendra in 2006 in a website, under the heading "Ancient Indian Approach to Science" as a part of Chronicles of Hinduism series.
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Physics]]

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

2026-04-13T12:45:37Z

Fordharma:

{{ToBeEdited}}

Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":02">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>
== Introduction ==
Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometers per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time.

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.
== Source Texts for Physics in India ==
There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.
# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.
# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.
# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.
# '''Puranas''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>
# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.
# '''Siddhanta granthas''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.
# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.
# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, Mahabharata, Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.
##'''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.
##'''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.
##'''Natyashastra''' - describes various musical instruments and their acoustical characteristics
##'''Agasthya Samhita''' - describes electrical cells
== Padarthas in Vaiseshika Darshana ==
The Vaiseshika school, attributed to Acharya Kanada, developed one of the world's earliest systematic classification of properties of matter and relation between them. In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides substance which is a part of all knowable reality into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":02" />
# Substance (dravya)
# Quality (guna)
# Action (karma)
# Generality (sāmānya)
# Individuality (viśesa)
# Inherence (samavāya)
Later Vaiseshikas (Sridhara, udayana and Sivaditya) added one more category called Abhava or non-existence. Dravya, guna and karma are defined as Artha (which can be perceived) and they have real objective existence. The rest, samanya, visesha and samavaya are defined as budhyapeksha (products of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.

These categories provided a comprehensive schema for understanding the structure of the physical world having philosophical basis, combining metaphysics and proto-scientific observations. Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:
* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref name=":82">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* स्पर्शवान् वायुः । वैशेषिक-२,१.४ । Vayu (Air) has touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
*

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===
In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":92">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include
# रूप or form/shape/colour
# रस or taste
# गन्ध or smell
# स्पर्श or touch
# संख्या or numbers/counting
# परिमाणानि or various measures such as length, area, volume, weight etc.
# पृथक्त्वं is being distinguished (to be separated)
# संयोग is conjunction or joining (or combination)
# विभाग is disjunction, disjoining or division
# परत्व is being next (spatially next or temporally later or subsequent)
# अपरत्व is being previous (spatially previous or temporally previous or earlier)
# बुद्धयः intellects (several)
# सुख is happiness
# दुःख is sorrow
# इच्छा is desire
# द्वेष is aversion
# प्रयत्नाः relates to efforts
The first 11 (from rupa to aparatva) are the qualities of physical substances or entities (dravya). The last 6 (from Buddhi to Prayatna) are the qualities of the Mind and Self (they are considered dravyas). Prayatna (effort) is a quality of Self while the rest of the 5 are the qualities of the mind.

The first 11 qualities mentioned above are well known as physical properties in Physics and Chemistry. Conventionally, every substance is examined for the same physical properties. Quality of counting is fundamental for any material entity. The qualities of being previous and being next are related to Space and time also. Conjunctive and disjunctive interactions are very common in Physics and chemistry wherein two or more entities or substances can be combined to form a new entity or an existing entity can be decomposed into several individual entities.

Prashastapada elaborated further on Gunas and brought in additional Gunas as follows:<ref name=":92" />
# गुरुत्व - Gurutva having weight, heaviness
# द्रवत्व - Dravatva having liquidity or fluidity
# स्नेह - Moisture, softness, viscidity or stickiness
# संस्कार - trait, habit, impression
# धर्म - Dharma or merit
# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit
# शब्द - Sound
Gunas are also elaborated in by Acharya Charaka in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]]
=== Air vs Space ===
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":02" />
=== Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===
Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space.<blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence. Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":32">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Time, space, Atma and mind are the eternal or nitya dravyas and none of them are perceivable by any of the sense organs is a basic definition in Vaiseshika. Although, these four eternal entities can only be conceived by the mind, they are real existent dravyas or entities. Time, space and akasa are incapable of motion and it is only the earth, water, fire and air (the four dravyas) and mind which are capable of motion.<blockquote>दिक्कालावाकाशं च क्रियावद्वैधर्म्यान्निष्क्रियाणि । वैशेषिक-५,२.२१ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Space, time, Akasa and Atman (indicated by the word "Cha") are void of action because of their difference from that which possesses activity.<ref name=":32" />

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.
== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as
# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations
# '''Rta or Natural Law''' as the transcendental and unitary principle of all motions (universal and individual)
# '''Yajna''' as the connective dynamic principle and nucleus of all evolution
# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.
These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.
=== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":12">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>
=== Rta ===
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practitioners of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energize the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":12" />

The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest (Potential Energy) changed to kinetic form (Kinetic Energy) and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.'' The term Kinetic Energy relates purely to motion and does not carry other meanings related to rta as in the Vedic context, i.e., rta represents motion charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose.<ref name=":22">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>

Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''.
Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda.

Dharma is science and nothing but science an most certainly not religion in the Vedic context.<ref>Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. (27-31) <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":22" />

rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":22" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

=== Yajna ===
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":12" />
=== Ap (Water) ===
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":12" />
=== Panchamahabhutas ===
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":12" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.
== Concept of Motion ==
=== Defining Motion based on Vaiseshika Principles and Prashastapada Bhashyam ===
Prashastapada in कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् prakarana<ref name=":102">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashyam]</ref> defines motion as the change of place of particles and evolves a discussion of its characteristics properties.

एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं क्षणिकत्वं मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् अगुणवत्वं गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् असमवायिकारणत्वं स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं च प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं च विशेषः ।।

These properties may be stated as follows:<ref name=":42">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref><ref name=":112">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>
# peculiarity of a single motion affecting a single body (at a given time) since its change of place at that moment is one and definite.
# instantaneous change of place (simplest form of motion)
# property of relating to a single body; the action of a composite whole is determined by the action of the constituent parts taken together
# a lack of gunas or qualities
# property of being generated by gravity, fluidity, volitional effort, and conjunctions (samyoga)
# property of being opposed by conjunctions caused by themselves
# property of acting as independent cause of conjunctions and disjunctions
# property of acting as non-inherent cause
# property of initiating effects (by conjunctions and disjunctions) in their own as well as in other substrates
# inability to initiate its own kind
# inability to generate motion in other bodies
# ability to classify into distinct types (of motion) characterized by directions of initial motion (linear, upwards, contraction, spreading etc)
Prashastapada defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunctions and disjunctions i.e., a change of place of particles. He regards motion as instantaneous, distinguishing it from impressed motion, and momentum (vega) which is a persistent tendency (Samskara) and implies a series of motions. Motion of a particle or object is one but from the point of view of the Observer, there may be many motions involved, e.g., a falling leaf driven by wind may have a rotatory or vibratory motion and a vertical downward motion at the same time. Here each particle of the leaf taken separately has only one motion or change of place at the same moment, but from Observer's stance, the particles have a rotatory or vibratory motion in one relation and the leaf as whole has a downward motion in another relation.<ref name=":112" />
=== Cosmic Motion ===
In the discussion about Rta in the earlier section, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":42" /> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,
=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===
Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":62">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":42" />
* ability to act as substratum of qualities/attributes
* being endowed with motion (kriyatattva)
* to provide an inherent or material cause
Parispanda sometimes stands for motion molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (e.g. vibration). All action, operation, work (Kriya, Vyapara) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff.<ref name=":112" />
=== Karma or Activity in terms of Physical Motion ===
'''Three characteristics of Karma''' or activity defined as per Vaiseshika Sutras are<blockquote>एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.17)<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>The three characteristics are
# Activity depends on substance
# Activity does not possess any quality inherently. It is substance that possess guṇa and karma.
# Movements cause disjunction (Vibhāga) of a substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (saṃyoga) with a new position. Thus activity brings out conjunction and disjunction.
-In a living organism, karma is initiated from within by Effort (Prayatna).

-In a non-living organism, karma is not initiated from within and needs an external agent to initiate. This is because effort (Prayatna) is a quality of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Ātman]].

'''Kinds of Karma''': Motion in the sense of activity is of five kinds.<blockquote>उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>They are<ref name=":92" />
* Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement, upward thrust)
* Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement, downward thrust)
* Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion, pulling towards a point)
* Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension, spreading, transmission)
* Gamana (general movements)
It is interesting to see the definition of general motion distinguished from the other four specific categories of motion. Prashastapada identified many more categories of motion as follows:<blockquote>गमनग्रहणाद्भ्रमण-रेचन-स्पन्दनोर्ध्वज्वलनतिर्यक्पतननमनोन्नमनादयो गमनविशेषाः । (Prashastapada Bhashya<ref name=":102" />)</blockquote>While motion (gamana) can mean, in general, any type of motion, as defined in a given context, Prashastapada has identified some well known additional categories of motion that are universally observable and referred to in later sutras of Vaiseshika:<ref name=":92" />
* भ्रमणम् or circular motion or rotation
* रेचनम् or gushing out or expulsion
* स्पंदनम् is the harmonic motion or beat (as in the case of heart beat or हृदयस्पंदनम्)
* ऊर्ध्वज्वलनम् or upward burning (of flame)
* तिर्यक्पतनम् or falling backwards
* नमनम् or bending forward
* उन्नमनम् rising upward
'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":92" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":82" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":92" />
* Having existence (सद्)
* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)
* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)
* being the कारणं or cause (of something which is a result or effect)
* being सामान्य or generalized and विशेषवत् or specialized
Prashastapada adds two more properties to the above namely अभिधेयत्व and ज्ञेयत्व i.e., naming (them) and knowing (them). It meaning being identified with a name and also being known.
=== Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth ===
The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>
=== Gravitation ===
=== Vega: Inertia, Momentum and Acceleration ===
A motion has been conceived as a change of place in a particle, instantaneous and incapable of producing another motion. But when motion is caused by impact (abhighata) or impelling push (nodana) it develops a samskara or persistent tendency to motion. This persistent tendency of a moving body to continue its motion has been called vega. That vega is a samkara has been clearly stated by Prashastapada. According to him, samskara is of three types<ref name=":42" />
* vega or momentum
* bhavana or mental impression
* sthitisthapaka or elasticity
The concept of vega closely fits in with the modern concept of momentum. Vaiseshikas accept one and the same samskara lasting till the cessation of motion. Uddyotakara and other writiers of the Nyaya school suppose a series of samskaras, each one generating the one that succeeds it. Nyaya view implies the modern idea of acceleration. The power of samskara diminishes by doing work against the counteracting forces and gradually when it gets exhausted, the moving body comes to rest. Thus Vega corresponds to inertia in some respects and to momentum (impressed motion) in others. It is the nearest approach to Newton's first law of motion.<ref name=":42" />
== Light ==
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.<ref name=":52">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>
* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Prakasha''' refers to the illuminating aspect of consciousness. Prakasha is the light that illuminates our thoughts, feelings, and experiences and allows us to know and understand the world around us.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.<ref name=":52" />
== ऊर्जा तापश्च ॥ Energy and Heat ==
Vedic Physics describes Prakriti as the material cause of the the creation while in modern physics it is called Energy. Affected by the divine touch of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakriti]] the inert unconscious entity is set into motion, i.e., rta, and invariably follows the creative process. Characteristics of Prakriti include having eternal existence and capability of conserving itself in any of the three states of its being namely<ref name=":22" />
* existence
* motion
* and transformation to any form of matter
'''Potential and Kinetic Energy:''' In many Veda mantras, Agni represents the forms of Energy.<ref name=":62" /> In Yajurveda<blockquote>अग्निरमृतो नि धायि । (Yaju. Veda. 12.24)<ref name=":72">Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref> अग्निरमृतोऽभवद् वयोभिर् । (Yaju. Veda. 12.25)</blockquote>Meaning - Agni (Energy form) is eternal and indestructible. It remains indestructible in the mortal world or jagat, due to its potential energy denoted by the term वयस्।

Earlier it was seen how Rta is understood as Kinetic Energy.

'''Transformation of Energy''':<ref name=":62" /> Vedas proclaim that Agni (in the form of Energy) is One; it undergoes transformation and hence various are its names. It has the capability to all activities, hence it is called Visvakarma. Urja or energy takes many forms hence it is called Vishvarupa.<blockquote>यो देवानां नामधा एक एव.. ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda 10.82.3)<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A8 Mandala 10 Sukta 82])</ref> स्तीर्णा अस्य संहतो विश्वरूपा । (Rig. Veda. 3.1.7)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9.%E0%A5%A7 Mandala 3 Sukta 1])</ref></blockquote>'''Omnipresence of Energy''':<ref name=":62" /> All [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]] proclaim that Agni imparts the quality of movement or chetana and is all-pervading in every atom of the Dyulok (heavenly), Antariksha (Celestial region) and Earth. Due to this energy, there is movement, existence and transformation in every particle. Hence Agni is said to pervade the heavens and earth with the core activity of causing movement.<blockquote>रोदसी भानुना भात्यन्तः ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.45.4)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AB Mandala 10 Sukta 45])</ref> विश्वस्य केतुर् भुवनस्य गर्भऽ आ रोदसी ऽ अपृणाज् जायमानः । (Yajurveda. 12.23)<ref name=":72" /></blockquote>'''Power of Expansion''':<ref name=":62" /> Yajurveda recounts the expansive quality of extreme heat (denoted by the term त्वेषः) energy in Agni, which causes the expansion of the universe/world.

अग्ने ... येनान्तरिक्षम् उर्व् आततन्थ त्वेषः स भानुर् अर्णवो नृचक्षाः ॥ (Yajurveda. 12.48)<ref name=":72" />

'''Forms of Energy''': Yajurveda talks about the "three bodies" or forms of Agni.
# या ते अग्नेऽयःशया तनूः - Ayas (अयस्) here means dhatu or metal; Agni or Energy within the metals. The core of the earth is described as ball of metallic fire. ('''Terrestrial Metallic Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने रजःशया तनूः - Rajas (रजस्) denotes molecules in space and the energy form is indicated by Vidyut or Electricity, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. ('''Atmospheric Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने हरिशया तनूः - The term Hari (हरि) represents Sun and sunrays. The heat energy residing in Sun and the warmth and heat of sun all represent the heat form of energy. ('''Solar Form of Energy''')
== Interesting Vedic knowledge of Surya ==
'''Solar Energy''': Vedic knowledge of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] and its energy is extensive according to Dwivedi.<ref name=":62" /> He provides the textual references to the following aspects

- सप्त आदित्या: Sapta Aditya (सप्त दिशो नानासूर्याः...), '''there are seven suns''' according to Rigveda (9.114.3) and Atharvaveda mentions that the central Surya is Kashyap, while Taittriya Aranyaja (1.7.1) gives the names of these seven suns.

- '''Hydrogen and Helium as the energy source''': सोमेन - आदित्या बलिन: । (Atha. Veda. 14.1.2) Dwivedi refers Soma to Hydrogen from which Sun gains its energy. Yajurveda (9.3)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9])</ref> refers two tattvas or nature of Sun's energy that exist in Surya - सूर्ये सन्तं समाहितम्
# "अपां रसम्" meaning that which is the essence of Ap or water in a gaseous form denoted by the term "उद्वयस्" Udvayas. These in modern terms refer to Hydrogen (split from water) in a gaseous form.
# "अपां रसस्य यो रस:" meaning that which is the essence of the essence of Ap which in modern terms indicates Helium.
- '''Sun spots''': Rigvedic terms (Rig. Veda. 1.164.14) such as चक्षु (मंडल, घेरा) रजस् (धूल, धब्ब) indicate that Surya is associated with spots, a fact identified since early ancient times.

- Sun-rays: The seven horses of Surya represent the seven rays of the sun.<blockquote>अव दिवस्तारयन्ति सप्त सूर्यस्य रश्मयः । आपः समुद्रिया धारास्तास्ते शल्यमसिस्रसन् ॥१॥<ref>Atharva Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Kanda 7 Sukta 112])</ref></blockquote>Many such concepts require further studies and exploration in terms of modern sciences.
== Electricity ==
Different kinds of electricity

• Tadita (तडित) Generated by rubbing silk cloths

• Saudamini (सौदामिनी ) Generated by rubbing two gems

• Vidyut (विद्युत) Generated from thunder

• Shatakumbhi (शतकुंभी) Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)

• Hrdani (हृदनी) Stored electricity with portable properties

• Ashani (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)
=== Construction of Electric Cell ===
It is mentioned by some scholars that Agasthya described how to make an electric battery and separate water into oxygen and hydrogen.<ref name=":52" /><ref>Ali, T., Afrin, D., & Gain, J. (2024). The Contribution of Ancient India to the Advancement of Modern physics: A Comprehensive study. ''International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation'', 245–252. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17613/75bc-9552</nowiki></ref><blockquote>संस्थाप्य मृण्मये पात्रे ताम्रपात्रं सुसंस्कृतम्‌। छादयेच्छिखिग्रीवेन चार्दाभि: काष्ठापांसुभि:॥</blockquote>A clay pot was covered with a clean copper plate, copper sulfate, and moist sawdust. The cathode, Mitra, and the anode, Varuna, were zinc amalgam sheets placed on top of these layers. To boost electricity, 100 Shata Kumbha jars were linked. As the reaction occurred, water split into Oxygen (pranavayu) and Hydrogen (udanavayu). In an airtight cloth, hydrogen gas was collected for aerodynamic use.

However, the shloka has been unverified at the time of compilation of this article. In the reference<ref>Jha, B. (Ed.). (2009). ''Agastya Samhita''. Mahavir Mandir Prakashan. (p. 30-32) <nowiki>https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/agastya-samhita-sage-agastya-bhavanath-jha/Agastya%20Samhita%20-%20Sage%20Agastya%20%2C%20Bhavanath%20Jha.pdf</nowiki></ref> of the text '''Agastya samhita, edited by Pt. Bhavanath Jha''', Acharya Kishore Kunal in his preface discussed the topic of Agasthya samhita's association with the usage and preparation of dry battery cell. He brings into context several aspects of scholarly discussions about Varuna, Pranavayu and Udanavayu that throw light on the later day interpolations and wrong attributions of electric batteries to Agastya Samhita. It was shown how Agasthya samhita deals with yoga and higher philosophical contexts and does not contain aspects of Physics. This information he mentions was posted by Chinmay Yuva Kendra in 2006 in a website, under the heading "Ancient Indian Approach to Science" as a part of Chronicles of Hinduism series.
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Physics]]

Energy Conservation (तेजसः संरक्षणम्)

2026-04-13T12:35:02Z

Fordharma:

Energy Conservation (तेजसः संरक्षणम्) elaborates on the importance and conservation of energy in the form of [[Agni (अग्निः)|fire]] and [[Surya (सूर्यः)|the Sun]] ie. Solar energy as described in the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Vijnana - Level A ([https://nios.ac.in/media/documents/OBE_indian_knowledge_tradition/Level_A/Vijnana-A_Englishi_OBE/Science-A_E_Ch-10.pdf Chapter 10]), Noida: National Institute of Open Schooling (Open Basic Education Programme).</ref>

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Fire is one of the five great elements or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]].<ref name=":0" /> In the Vedas, fire has been considered fundamental in the creation of the environment.<ref name=":1" /> The heat of fire is present in the form of energy in the entire universe.<ref name=":0">Vijnana - Level A ([https://nios.ac.in/media/documents/OBE_indian_knowledge_tradition/Level_A/Vijnana-A_Englishi_OBE/Science-A_E_Ch-9.pdf Chapter 9]), Noida: National Institute of Open Schooling (Open Basic Education Programme).</ref>

== वेदेषु अग्निः ॥ Agni in the Vedas ==
{{Main article|Agni in Vedavangmaya (अग्निः वेदवाङ्मये)}}
In Vedic discussion, Fire has been referred to as Vaishvanara. It means the power that keeps the world engaged in work. This fire has been considered as the main factor in the [[Creation of the Universe (सृष्ट्युत्पत्तिः)|creation of the universe]].<ref name=":1" /> Viewing Agni as the benefactor of all, Rishi Madhucchanda Vaishvamitra, in the very first verse of the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], says,<ref name=":2">Sripad Damodar Satavlekar (1985), Rigveda ka Subodh Bhashya ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Rigveda_Subodh_Bhasya_Vol_I/#book/9 Volume 1]), Pardi: Svadhyay Mandal.</ref><blockquote>अग्निमीळे पुरोहितं ... ॥१॥<ref>Rigveda, Mandala 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A7 Sukta 1]</ref> agnimīle purohitaṁ ... ॥1॥</blockquote>Meaning: I praise Agni.<ref name=":2" /> Worshiping him and propounding the importance of fire, Rishi Kashyapa, in the Rigveda says,<blockquote>अग्निर्जागार तमृचः कामयन्तेऽग्निर्जागार तमु सामानि यन्ति । अग्निर्जागार तमयं सोम आह तवाहमस्मि सख्ये न्योकाः ॥१५॥<ref>Rigveda, Mandala 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AB.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AA Sukta 44]</ref>

agnirjāgāra tamr̥caḥ kāmayante'gnirjāgāra tamu sāmāni yanti । agnirjāgāra tamayaṁ soma āha tavāhamasmi sakhye nyokāḥ ॥15॥</blockquote>Meaning: Agni is always awake. Hence, the rchas always wish for him, the Samas yield to him and [[Soma (सोमः)|Soma]] finds his dwelling in him.<ref name=":3">Sripad Damodar Satavlekar (1985), Rigveda ka Subodh Bhashya ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Rigveda_Subodh_Bhasya_Vol_II/#book/574 Volume 2]), Pardi: Svadhyay Mandal.</ref>

In this verse, awake refers to being constant and continuous. Indirectly, it points towards the use and protection of fire energy.<ref name=":1" /> While, metaphorically, the Rishi is emphasizing that knowledge yields only to those who are always engaged in efforts. It is such people that Sama approaches and in them, Soma in the form of great intellect dwells.<ref name=":3" />

== अग्नेः महत्त्वम् ॥ Importance of Fire ==
In Vedic contemplation, Fire has been described in three forms.

# Earthly fire ie. fire on the [[Prthvi (पृथ्वी)|earth]].
# Space fire
# Dyusthani Fire ie. the solar fire.

In this way, Vaishvanara is spread everywhere. The whole earth is resplendent with this fire.

While highlighting the importance of fire, the Rigvedic Rishi prays to space fire to protect people from the disturbances of the space.<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>सूर्यो नो दिवस्पातु वातो अन्तरिक्षात् । अग्निर्नः पार्थिवेभ्यः ॥१॥<ref>Rigveda, Mandala 10, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%AE Sukta 158]</ref> sūryo no divaspātu vāto antarikṣāt । agnirnaḥ pārthivebhyaḥ ॥1॥</blockquote>Meaning: May the sun protect us from celestial disturbances, wind from space disturbances and fire from earth's disturbances. The Atharvavedic Rishi also prays to the Sun for protection. He says,<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>सूर्य चक्षुषा मा पाहि स्वाहा ॥३॥<ref>Atharvaveda, Kanda 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AC Sukta 16]</ref> sūrya cakṣuṣā mā pāhi svāhā ॥3॥</blockquote>Meaning: O Sun ! May you protect me with the power of your vision.<ref name=":4">Sripad Damodar Satavlekar (1985), Atharvaveda ka Subodh Bhashya ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Atharvaveda_Subodh_Bhashya_Vol_I/#book/245 Volume 1]), Pardi: Svadhyay Mandal.</ref> Further, the Sun is asked to illuminate people with his life force.<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>सूर्य यत्तेऽर्चिस्तेन तं प्रत्यर्च...॥३॥<ref>Atharvaveda, Kanda 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A7 Sukta 21]</ref> sūrya yatte'rcistena taṁ pratyarca...॥3॥</blockquote>Infact, describing Agni and Surya as amongst the deities with the inner strength to scorch, the Atharvavedic Rishi prays to them to destroy any hatred in them towards people or vice versa.<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>अग्ने यत्ते तपस्तेन तं प्रति तप योऽस्मान् द्वेष्टि यं वयं द्विष्मः ॥१॥<ref>Atharvaveda, Kanda 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AF Sukta 19]</ref> agne yatte tapastena taṁ prati tapa yo'smān dveṣṭi yaṁ vayaṁ dviṣmaḥ ॥1॥</blockquote>Speaking of Agni, Rishi Grtsamada of the Rigveda states that Agni is endowed with lustre at creation and speedily illuminates and purifies everything.<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>त्वमग्ने द्युभिस्त्वमाशुशुक्षणि स्त्वमद्भ्यस्त्वमश्मनस्परि । त्वं वनेभ्यस्त्वमोषधीभ्यस्त्वं नृणां नृपते जायसे शुचिः ॥१॥<ref>Rigveda, Mandala 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A8.%E0%A5%A7 Sukta 1] </ref>

tvamagne dyubhistvamāśuśukṣaṇi stvamadbhyastvamaśmanaspari । tvaṁ vanebhyastvamoṣadhībhyastvaṁ nr̥ṇāṁ nr̥pate jāyase śuciḥ ॥1॥</blockquote>

== सौरोर्जायाः महत्त्वम् ॥ Importance of Solar Energy ==
Importance of solar energy, that is the focus of today's world, was pointed out in Vedic thought itself. It is said in the Rigveda that Soma makes the Sun strong.<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>सोमेनादित्या बलिनः ...॥२॥<ref>Rigveda, Mandala 10, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%AB Sukta 85]</ref> somenādityā balinaḥ ...॥2॥</blockquote>In this context, Soma means the moon. And the rcha refers to the moon transmitting energy from the Sun. While the [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]] states that the element of [[Jala (जलम्)|water]] is established in the sun.<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>अपाꣳ रसम् उद्वयसꣳ सूर्ये सन्तꣳ समाहितम् । अपाꣳ रसस्य यो रसस्...॥३॥<ref>Yajurveda (Shukla), [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9] </ref> apāꣳ rasam udvayasaꣳ sūrye santaꣳ samāhitam । apāꣳ rasasya yo rasas...॥3॥</blockquote>And according to the [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]], both Agni and Soma elements uphold the water that is auspicious and increases one's lustre.<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>...अग्नीषोमौ बिभ्रत्याप इत्ताः ।...॥५॥<ref>Atharvaveda, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A9 Sukta 13]</ref> ...agnīṣomau bibhratyāpa ittāḥ ।...॥5॥</blockquote>Energy of the Sun (solar energy) is very important. Today, efforts are being made to generate electricity from solar energy. The Vedas mention the utility of solar energy and we should use the energy we get from the Sun. At the same time, we need to pay attention to the conservation of energy as well.<ref name=":1" />

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Rigveda]]
[[Category:Shastras]]
[[Category:Chemistry]]

Category:Physics

2026-04-13T12:31:57Z

Fordharma: Created page with "Physics is a modern branch of science that deals with matter and energy in space and time. But the concepts of physics began at the very moment the world was created and conti..."

Physics is a modern branch of science that deals with matter and energy in space and time. But the concepts of physics began at the very moment the world was created and continues till date. The Vedas, being the earliest record of human civilization deal with various aspects of human life. We find speculations about the origin of the material world in the Nasadiya Sukta of the Rigveda. Several darshanas deeply discuss the properties and components of matter , of motion, light, sound, electricity and the philosophical aspects concerning them.

Category:Chemistry

2026-04-13T11:35:33Z

Fordharma: Created page with "Ancient Indian Chemistry is receiving attention in the past decade as more researchers are exploring Indian texts to understand the knowledge given by our ancient sages, most..."

Ancient Indian Chemistry is receiving attention in the past decade as more researchers are exploring Indian texts to understand the knowledge given by our ancient sages, most notably, Maharshi Kanada. Ancient Indian scientists such as Acharya Sushruta and Charaka, Varahamihira, elaborated on scientific principles of Chemistry long before it the advent of modern sciences. Rasayana shastra, the term for modern Chemistry was well explored by the Acharyas in Ayurveda, as metals or dhatus are foundational for understanding human physiology as well as medicinal chemistry.

Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)

2026-04-12T18:25:19Z

Fordharma: added content

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Atom (Sanskrit: परमाणुः) has been described as the smallest, indivisible particle in any substance. Science and philosophy have studied through investigations and experiments, the many forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear forces etc., but one of the major theories studied is that of the atom.

In Indian thought, there are two naturalistic theories of the origin of the empirical world. One view accords world to be a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Nature (one becoming many), while the second views world arising out of atoms combining together in various ways (many becoming one) in a limited sense. The Sankhya represents the first, and the Vaiseshika the second view. <ref name=":3" />

== Nyaya-Vaiseshika Atomic Theory ==
The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for their logically-structured atomism. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents. The concept of avayavin (whole) and avayava (constituent part) has shaped the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. This school of thought uses a logical and causal framework to explain how invisible particles combine to form the visible universe.<ref name=":13">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 461-469</ref>

=== Attributes of Atoms ===
According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.<ref name=":4">R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology'' (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref>
The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).

पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । १,१.४ । Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4<ref name=":0">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref>
Among these nine, the first four, namely, earth, water, fire and air are considered to be atomic in nature. Each element has own class of atoms with particular attributes by which they can be differentiated, i.e., qualitatively. Maharshi Kanada recognized them as four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
#kshiti or earth - smell
#apa or water - taste
#tejas or fire - color
#vayu or air - touch
These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. All other objects made by the combination of atoms are non-eternal and subject to origination as well as destruction. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.

Kshiti or earth has fourteen qualities as follows, among them its unique quality is smell or odour.<ref name=":4" />
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* colour
* taste
* smell
* touch
* numerical unit
* mass
* weight
* conjunction
* disjunction
* distance
* proximity
* gravity
* fluidity
* faculty
}}
Apa has the qualities of kshiti with the exception of smell, instead of which viscidity is present; its special quality is taste. Tejas has all the qualities of kshiti with the exception of taste, smell, and weight; its special quality is colour. Vayu has the qualities of kshiti, excepting colour, taste and smell; touch is its special quality. Maharshi Kanada outlines the special qualities of the five elements (including Akasha) as follows<ref name=":0" /> <blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । २,१.१ । rūparasagandhasparśavatī pṛthivī | 2,1.1 |

Prithvi or earth has the qualities of form, taste, smell and touch

रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाश्च । २,१.२ । rūparasasparśavatya āpo dravāḥ snigdhāśca | 2,1.2 |

Apa or water has form, taste, and touch; it has the characteristic of fluidty and viscidity

तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । २,१.३ । tejo rūpasparśavat | 2,1.3 |

Tejas or fire has form and touch

वायुः स्पर्शवान् । २,१.४ । vāyuḥ sparśavān | 2,1.4 |

Vayu is known by touch

त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । २,१.५ । ta ākāśe na vidyante | 2,1.5 |

None of these exist in Akasha or ether</blockquote>Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules.<ref name=":1" />

That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.

=== Key Features of Atomic Theory ===
Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory based on Nyaya and Vaiseshika texts:<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":4" />

#'''Indivisible:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter. They have no constituent parts (avayavas) and cannot be further divided.
#'''Invisible:''' Atoms are invisible, they cannot be perceived but that is not the ground for non-existence of atoms.<ref name=":2">''The Physics of Vaisesika'' (C. S. R. Prabhu, Trans.). (2014). Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref>
#'''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.
#'''Qualitative Differentiation:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms based on the four eternal elements: earth, water, light, and air.
#'''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.
#'''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.
#'''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.
#'''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.
#'''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.
#'''Vibratory motion:''' According to Vaiseshika, atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
#'''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, atoms are theoretically regarded as spherical (parimandaliya)
#'''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.

Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.
===Proof of existence of Atoms===
The four kind of atoms, namely of kshiti, apa, tejas, and vayu, are characterized by their characteristic mass, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":5" /> <blockquote>महत्यनेकद्रव्यवत्त्वाद्रूपाच्चोपलब्धिः । ४,१.६ । mahatyaneka-dravyavattvād-rūpāccopalabdhiḥ | 4,1.6 |(Vais. Sutr. 4.1.6)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>'''Translation''': In Mahat (in the Universe) due to the existence of multiple substances or material entities and also due to multiple forms / shapes / colours, attainment or formation (is possible).<ref name=":2" />

Sat or Pure Existence takes multifarious forms as substances with various forms/shapes/colours i.e. the Universe is formed out of Sat or Pure Existence (Brahman in Vedanta). Atoms take different forms of agglomerations. Atoms cannot he perceived. Perception is possible only for those objects which have perceivable dimensions or measure (parimana) and have a form/shape/colour (rupa). In spite of being a large substance (or material entity), Vayu does not get perceived i.e. cannot be observed directly due to its lack of form/shape/colour. Invisibility is not a ground for non existence, as in die case of Vayu. Vayu is invisible but it has existence. So also the atoms are invisible but they exist. Vaiseshika expounded the Atomic theory wherein indivisible atoms are identified as the ultimate building blocks of all previously mentioned 9 dravyas though they cannot be perceived by the sense organs.<ref name=":2" />

=== Nature of Atomic Combinations ===
Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. Atoms are invisible though the final substance formed by conjunction of many such atoms is perceived by the sense organs. Atoms are driven by an inherent tendency of constant motion which is their natural property. As a result, atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine to form '''dvyanuka''' or dyad according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to modern conception. One atom unites with another under an inherent impulse to form a binary molecule or a compound of two atoms. The two like or similar atoms are the material causes for the combination while the other types of atoms are considered to play the role of supportive atoms. Two unlike atoms, i.e. an atom of earth and an atom of water cannot, it is stated, enter into combination. These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref>

Maharshi Kanada, however, maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.<ref name=":5" />

According to Prashastapada, basic unit of n dyads = 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1

These dyad combinations further combine in different proportions to form '''trayanuka''' (tertiary) '''chaturanuka''' (quarternary) and so on.<ref name=":4" /> The minimum visible is a triad, designated as Trayanuka (trasarenu) of the size of a mote in sunbeam. A triad is formed out of three dyads and so on.

While Kanada's Atoms combine = basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" />

Basic unit of n atoms = 1 atom+ 1 atom…n atoms where �n≥1

Nyaya-Vaiseshika views atoms, though eternal in themselves, are non-eternal (anitya) as aggregates which may be organic or inorganic.<ref name=":4" />

=== Principle of Causality ===
Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for its adherence to the principle of causality. Atoms are the material cause for a dyad, the effect. Dyads are the cause for the production of a triad which is again an effect. After the triad comes into existence, the atoms lose their causal efficiency.<ref name=":13" />

But, why do the primordial atoms unite and produce gross matter? Vaiseshika explains that there is an unseen (adristha) which sets off the process of atoms uniting to form dyads. Adrishta as an unseen force is the efficient cause of the world while atoms are its material cause.<ref name=":13" />
===Effect of Heat ===
A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. Heat and light, are the different forms of the same essential entity, tejas according to Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" /> The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />

- decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)

- transformation of the character of the atoms

- recombination of paramanus with a new basic unit arrangement and order resulting in a new substance.

The Vaisheshikas hold that under the influence of heat, substances are broken down to the most basic entity (paramanu) before being transformed in to a new substance whereas the Nyaya school does not believe in decomposition in to the very basic entity.<ref name=":32">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>

Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same or different bhuta classes.<ref name=":12" />

(A) '''Mono-bhautic compounds:'''—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same bhuta class.

(B) '''Hetero-bhautic compounds:'''—These may be bi or polybhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different bhuta classes.

A nature (tattva) of the particular substance when it turns into another nature is called '''transmutation (Utparivartana)''' in scientific terms. A study on the changes (Parivartana) and analysis (Visleṣaṇa) of the substance because of its origin and qualities is called Chemical Science of the particular substance. The Change is of two kinds such as

1) Physical Change (Bhautika Parivartana)

2) Chemical Change (Rāsāyanika Parivartana)

The first type of change i.e. the Physical Change, is when the nature of the substance undergoes changes due to various reasons for a particular period of time and returns back to its previous state. For example, a piece of Iron forms into magnet after a deep friction (Gharṣaṇa) on the magnet and returns into being a piece of iron after it loses the magnetic effect. In same manner, water turns into ice at the state of high cooling (Himānka) and returns to liquid state after melting.

In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== States of Matter ===
As mentioned in the Upanishads, the five elements of the nature are –<ref name=":7">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>

• Earth • Water • Air • Fire and • Akasa

The concept of Akasha

• The Earth represents the solid state

• The Water constitutes the liquid state

• The Air forms the gaseous state and

• The Fire constitutes of the plasma as the fourth state of matter.

The western scholars, though, failed to recognize and include nuclear state as part of a state of

matter.

• Akasa is a nuclear state in which few nuclear parts are stable.

== Samkhya Theory of Matter ==
According to Samkhya the universe, as manifested evolved out of an unmanifested cosmic nature termed prakriti or avyakta, the ultimate ground. Prakriti, is an infinite, eternal, ubiquitous, indestructible, indifferentiated, indeterminate continuum. This was believed to be made up of infinitesimal reals or gunas, representing substances classified under<ref name=":7" />

# sattva (the essence or intelligence stuff)
# rajas (the energy stuff)
# tamas (the inertia or matter stuffs

== References ==
[[Category:Chemistry]]

Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)

2026-04-12T11:50:24Z

Fordharma: adding content

{{ToBeEdited}}

Atom (Sanskrit: परमाणुः) has been described as the smallest, indivisible particle in any substance. Science and philosophy have studied through investigations and experiments, the many forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear forces etc., but one of the major theories studied is that of the atom.

In Indian thought, there are two naturalistic theories of the origin of the empirical world. One view accords world to be a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Nature (one becoming many), while the second views world arising out of atoms combining together in various ways (many becoming one) in a limited sense. The Sankhya represents the first, and the Vaiseshika the second view. <ref name=":3" />

== Nyaya-Vaiseshika Atomic Theory ==
The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for their logically-structured atomism. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents. The concept of avayavin (whole) and avayava (constituent part) has shaped the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. This school of thought uses a logical and causal framework to explain how invisible particles combine to form the visible universe.<ref name=":13">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 461-469</ref>

=== Attributes of Atoms ===
According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.<ref name=":4">R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology'' (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref>
The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).

पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । १,१.४ । Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4<ref name=":0">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref>
Among these nine, the first four, namely, earth, water, fire and air are considered to be atomic in nature. Each element has own class of atoms with particular attributes by which they can be differentiated, i.e., qualitatively. Maharshi Kanada recognized them as four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
#kshiti or earth - smell
#apa or water - taste
#tejas or fire - color
#vayu or air - touch
These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. All other objects made by the combination of atoms are non-eternal and subject to origination as well as destruction. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.

Kshiti or earth has fourteen qualities as follows, among them its unique quality is smell or odour.<ref name=":4" />
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* colour
* taste
* smell
* touch
* numerical unit
* mass
* weight
* conjunction
* disjunction
* distance
* proximity
* gravity
* fluidity
* faculty
}}
Apa has the qualities of kshiti with the exception of smell, instead of which viscidity is present; its special quality is taste. Tejas has all the qualities of kshiti with the exception of taste, smell, and weight; its special quality is colour. Vayu has the qualities of kshiti, excepting colour, taste and smell; touch is its special quality. Maharshi Kanada outlines the special qualities of the five elements (including Akasha) as follows<ref name=":0" />

रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । २,१.१ । rūparasagandhasparśavatī pṛthivī | 2,1.1 | Prithvi or earth has the qualities of form, taste, smell and touch

रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाश्च । २,१.२ । rūparasasparśavatya āpo dravāḥ snigdhāśca | 2,1.2 | Apa or water has form, taste, and touch; it has the characteristic of fluidty and viscidity

तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । २,१.३ । tejo rūpasparśavat | 2,1.3 | Tejas or fire has form and touch

वायुः स्पर्शवान् । २,१.४ । vāyuḥ sparśavān | 2,1.4 | Vayu is known by touch

त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । २,१.५ । ta ākāśe na vidyante | 2,1.5 | None of these exist in Akasha or ether

Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules.<ref name=":1" />

That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.

=== Key Features of Atomic Theory ===
Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory based on Nyaya and Vaiseshika texts:<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":4" />

*'''Indivisible:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter. They have no constituent parts (avayavas) and cannot be further divided.
*'''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.
*'''Qualitative Differentiation:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms based on the four eternal elements: earth, water, light, and air.
*'''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.
*'''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.
*'''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.
*'''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.
*'''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.
*'''Vibratory motion:''' According to Vaiseshika, atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
*'''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, atoms are theoretically regarded as spherical (parimandaliya)
*'''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.

Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.
===Combination of Atoms===
The four kind of atoms, namely of kshiti, apa, tejas, and vayu, are characterized by their characteristic mass, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":5" />

Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. The atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine driven by an inherent tendency which is their natural property to form dyads according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. One atom unites with another under an inherent impulse to form a binary molecule or a compound of two atoms.

These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> Maharshi Kanada maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.

Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads = 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1

While Kanada's Atoms combine = basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" />

Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
===Effect of Heat ===
A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. Heat and light, are the different forms of the same essential entity, tejas according to Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" /> The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />

- decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)

- transformation of the character of the atoms

- recombination of paramanus with a new basic unit arrangement and order resulting in a new substance.

The Vaisheshikas hold that under the influence of heat, substances are broken down to the most basic entity (paramanu) before being transformed in to a new substance whereas the Nyaya school does not believe in decomposition in to the very basic entity.<ref name=":32">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>

Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same or different bhuta classes.<ref name=":12" />

(A) Mono-bhautic compounds :—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same bhuta class.

(B) Hetero-bhautic compounds :—These may be bi or polybhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different bhuta classes.

A nature (Tattva) of the particular substance when it turns into another nature is called transmutation (Utparivartana) in scientific terms. A study on the Changes (Parivartana) and analysis (Visleṣaṇa) of the substance because of its origin and qualities is called Chemical Science of the particular substance. The Change is of two kinds such as

1) Physical Change (Bhautika Parivartana)

2) Chemical Change (Rāsāyanika Parivartana)

The first type of change i.e. the Physical Change, is when the nature of the substance undergoes changes due to various reasons for a particular period of time and returns back to its previous state. For example, a piece of Iron forms into magnet after a deep friction (Gharṣaṇa) on the magnet and returns into being a piece of iron after it loses the magnetic effect. In same manner, water turns into ice at the state of high cooling (Himānka) and returns to liquid state after melting.

In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref>

=== States of Matter ===
As mentioned in the Upanishads, the five elements of the nature are –<ref>Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>

• Earth • Water • Air • Fire and • Akasa

The concept of Akasha

• The Earth represents the solid state

• The Water constitutes the liquid state

• The Air forms the gaseous state and

• The Fire constitutes of the plasma as the fourth state of matter.

The western scholars, though, failed to recognize and include nuclear state as part of a state of

matter.

• Akasa is a nuclear state in which few nuclear parts are stable.

== Samkhya Theory of Matter ==
According to Samkhya the universe, as manifested evolved out of an unmanifested cosmic nature termed prakriti or avyakta, the ultimate ground. Prakriti, is an infinite, eternal, ubiquitous, indestructible, indifferentiated, indeterminate continuum. This was believed to be made up of infinitesimal reals or gunas, representing substances classified under

# sattva (the essence or intelligence stuff)
# rajas (the energy stuff)
# tamas (the inertia or matter stuffs

== References ==
[[Category:Chemistry]]

Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)

2026-04-11T18:30:18Z

Fordharma: /* Attributes of Atoms */

{{ToBeEdited}}

Atom (Sanskrit: परमाणुः) has been described as the smallest, indivisible particle in any substance. Science and philosophy have studied through investigations and experiments, the many forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear forces etc., but one of the major theories studied is that of the atom.

In Indian thought, there are two naturalistic theories of the origin of the empirical world. One view accords world to be a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Nature (one becoming many), while the second views world arising out of atoms combining together in various ways (many becoming one) in a limited sense. The Sankhya represents the first, and the Vaiseshika the second view. <ref name=":3" />

== Nyaya-Vaiseshika Atomic Theory ==
The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. Nyaya-Vaiseshika is noted for their logically-structured atomism. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents. The concept of avayavin (whole) and avayava (constituent part) has shaped the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. This school of thought uses a logical and causal framework to explain how invisible particles combine to form the visible universe.<ref name=":13">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 461-469</ref>

=== Attributes of Atoms ===
According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.<ref name=":4">R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology'' (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref>
The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).

पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । १,१.४ । Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref>
Among these nine, the first four, namely, earth, water, fire and air are considered to be atomic in nature. Each element has own class of atoms with particular attributes by which they can be differentiated, i.e., qualitatively. Maharshi Kanada recognized them as four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
#kshiti or earth - smell
#apa or water - taste
#tejas or fire - color
#vayu or air - touch
These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. All other objects made by the combination of atoms are non-eternal and subject to origination as well as destruction. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.

Kshiti or earth has fourteen qualities as follows, among them its unique quality is smell or odour.<ref name=":4" />
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* colour
* taste
* smell
* touch
* numerical unit
* mass
* weight
* conjunction
* disjunction
* distance
* proximity
* gravity
* fluidity
* faculty
}}
Apa has the qualities of kshiti with the exception of smell, instead of which viscidity is present; its special quality is taste. Tejas has all the qualities of kshiti with the exception of taste, smell, and weight; its special quality is colour. Vayu has the qualities of kshiti, excepting colour, taste and smell; touch is its special quality.

रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । २,१.१ । Prithvi has the qualities of form, taste, smell and touch

रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाश्च । २,१.२ ।

तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । २,१.३ ।

वायुः स्पर्शवान् । २,१.४ ।

त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । २,१.५ ।

Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules.<ref name=":1" />

That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.

=== Key Features of Atomic Theory ===
Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory based on Nyaya and Vaiseshika texts:<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":4" />

*'''Indivisible:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter. They have no constituent parts (avayavas) and cannot be further divided.
*'''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.
*'''Qualitative Differentiation:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms based on the four eternal elements: earth, water, light, and air.
*'''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.
*'''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.
*'''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.
*'''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.
*'''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.
*'''Vibratory motion:''' According to Vaiseshika, atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
*'''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, atoms are theoretically regarded as spherical (parimandaliya)
*'''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.

Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.
===Combination of Atoms===
The four kind of atoms, namely of kshiti, apa, tejas, and vayu, are characterized by their characteristic mass, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":5" />

Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. The atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine driven by an inherent tendency which is their natural property to form dyads according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. One atom unites with another under an inherent impulse to form a binary molecule or a compound of two atoms.

These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> Maharshi Kanada maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.

Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads = 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1

While Kanada's Atoms combine = basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" />

Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
===Effect of Heat ===
A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. Heat and light, are the different forms of the same essential entity, tejas according to Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" /> The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />

- decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)

- transformation of the character of the atoms

- recombination of paramanus with a new basic unit arrangement and order resulting in a new substance.

The Vaisheshikas hold that under the influence of heat, substances are broken down to the most basic entity (paramanu) before being transformed in to a new substance whereas the Nyaya school does not believe in decomposition in to the very basic entity.<ref name=":32">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>

Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same or different bhuta classes.<ref name=":12" />

(A) Mono-bhautic compounds :—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same bhuta class.

(B) Hetero-bhautic compounds :—These may be bi or polybhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different bhuta classes.

A nature (Tattva) of the particular substance when it turns into another nature is called transmutation (Utparivartana) in scientific terms. A study on the Changes (Parivartana) and analysis (Visleṣaṇa) of the substance because of its origin and qualities is called Chemical Science of the particular substance. The Change is of two kinds such as

1) Physical Change (Bhautika Parivartana)

2) Chemical Change (Rāsāyanika Parivartana)

The first type of change i.e. the Physical Change, is when the nature of the substance undergoes changes due to various reasons for a particular period of time and returns back to its previous state. For example, a piece of Iron forms into magnet after a deep friction (Gharṣaṇa) on the magnet and returns into being a piece of iron after it loses the magnetic effect. In same manner, water turns into ice at the state of high cooling (Himānka) and returns to liquid state after melting.

In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref>

== Samkhya Theory of Matter ==
According to Samkhya the universe, as manifested evolved out of an unmanifested cosmic nature termed prakriti or avyakta, the ultimate ground. Prakriti, is an infinite, eternal, ubiquitous, indestructible, indifferentiated, indeterminate continuum. This was believed to be made up of infinitesimal reals or gunas, representing substances classified under

# sattva (the essence or intelligence stuff)
# rajas (the energy stuff)
# tamas (the inertia or matter stuffs

== References ==
[[Category:Chemistry]]

Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)

2026-04-11T17:44:38Z

Fordharma: /* Attributes of Atoms */

Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)

2026-04-11T17:40:39Z

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Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)

2026-04-11T17:13:04Z

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Rasa (रसः)

2026-03-03T10:40:32Z

Fordharma: editing

{{ToBeEdited}}

Rasa (Sanskrit: रसः) in general means the 'knowledge perceived through the rasanendriya or the sensory organ of taste (tongue)'. As "essence, juice, sap, taste, delight" the term rasa has wide import as discussed in [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]] and [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]] darshanas, [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga darshana]], [[Vedanta (वेदान्तः)|Vedanta]], classical Sanskrit Sahitya, Kavyashastra, [[Chandas (छन्दस्)|Chandas]], [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and other texts. In each of these texts, the term "Rasa" has a specific contextual meaning and associated concept. As a non-translatable it is best to use this term as is based on the context.

== ॥ Introduction ==
In Indian literary sources Rasa is used in multiple disciplines<ref>Mishra, B. (2018) Bharatiya Kavyashastra mein ras ki avadharana, ''Journal of Advances and Scholarly Researches in Allied Education'', Vol 15 (11), 573-580</ref>

# Rasa or material taste of substances. They are six in number termed shadrasas (e.g., lavana or salty taste, madhura or sweet taste) mentioned in Ayurvedic texts.
# Rasa dhatu in Ayurveda. [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)|Mercury or Parada]] is called Rasa in Ayurveda. Essence of food, bodily fluids are also denoted as rasa in Ayurveda.
# Rasa or aesthetic relish in Kavyashastra. Rasa is termed as aesthetic delight derived from poetic or dramatic representation.
# Bhakti rasa is recognized in Vedanta.
# Rasa or fluid essence of substances. Natural essence of substances (e.g., plants).
In a general sense rasa refers to "tastes" in literature dealing with the topic of dietetics and culinary art, Pakakala. Rasa in Ayurveda refers to "flavours" of six kinds as mentioned in Ashtangahrdaya samhita by Vagbhata and it indicates the pharmacological behaviour of a substance. As it stands for fluid portion of the body, it is referred to as the water-originating principle.

In Indian aesthetics, Rasa has the connotation of emotional experience, and a systematic analysis of the nature of emotion is found in Natyashastra or the science of theatrics and dramatics. In this context rasa refers to "sentiment, aesthetic relish" or the relishable quality inherent in a work of art. Bharata Muni, the author of Natyashastra enumerates eight "fundamental" emotions occurring in humans as well as animals.<ref>Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 265)</ref>

Apart from having a laukika - material or worldly connotation, Rasa also has an alauikika - non-worldly or transcendental reference. Bharata Muni though was the first Acharya to reveal the concept of Rasa, Acharya Abhinavagupta in his 'Abhinava Bharati', commentary on Bharata Muni's Natyashastra, established one of the chief theories of the transcendental nature of rasa with a philosophical foundation.<ref>Ojha, K. (2021) Abhinavagupt ka rasa vishayak siddhanta in ''International Journal of Advanced Educational Research'' Vol. 6 (4) 41-44</ref>

== ॥ Etymology ==
Rasa (रसः।rasaḥ), an ancient term is derived from the dhatu 'रस् (ras)' in the meaning of आस्वादने (āsvādane) as per Shabdakalpadhruma.<ref name=":0">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=rasa</ref>

According to Apte Pratical Sanskrit- English Dictionary<ref name=":0" />

== ॥ Rasa in Vedas and Darshanas ==

== ॥ Rasa in Panchabhutas ==
One of the five substances, Rasa is elemental in nature.

== ॥ Rasa in Indian Arts ==

Rasa theory of Bharata<ref>https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/icp04/chapter/the-rasa-theory-of-bharata/</ref> holds primary importance alludes to eight kinds of Rasas

# Rati (Pleasure) (love), – Smiling face, sweet words, contraction of eye-brows, sidelong glances and the like.
# Hasa (Joy) – Smile and the like, i.e., laugher, excessive laugher.
# Shoka (Sorrow) (grief)- Shedding tears, lamentation, bewailing, change of color, loss of voice, looseness of limbs, falling on the ground, crying, deep breathing, paralysis, insanity, death and the like.
# Krodha (Malice) – Extended nostrils, unturned eyes, bitten lips, throbbing cheeks and the like.
#* against enemies – knitting of the eye-brows, fierce look, bitten lips, hands clasping each other, touching one’s own shoulder and breast.
#* when controlled by superiors – slightly downcast eyes, wiping off slight perspiration and not expressing any violent movement.
#* against beloved woman – very slight movement of the body, shedding tears, knitting eyebrows, sidelong glances and throbbing lips.
#* against one’s servants – threat, rebuke, dilating eyes and casting contemptuous looks of various kinds.
#* artificial – betraying signs of effort.
# Utsaha (Courage) (heroism)- steadiness, munificence, boldness of undertaking and the like.
# Bhaya (Fear) – trembling of the hands and feet, palpitation of the heart, paralysis, dryness of the mouth, licking lips, perspiration, tremor, apprehension of danger, seeking for safety, running away, loud crying and the like.
# Jugupsa (Disgust) – contracting all the limbs, spitting, narrowing down of the mouth, heartache and the like.
# Vismaya (Surprise) – wide opening the eyes, looking without winking of the eyes and movement of the eye-brows, horripilation, moving the head to and fro, the cry of ‘well done’ and the like.

=== ॥ Rasa Theories ===

=== ॥ Applications of Rasa Theory ===

== ॥ Rasa in Ayurveda ==

== ॥ Rasa in Agriculture and Vrikshayurveda ==

== References ==
[[Category:Sahitya]]
[[Category:Darshanas]]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Ayurveda]]
[[Category:Psychology]]

Rasa (रसः)

2026-03-03T10:36:36Z

Fordharma: adding content

{{ToBeEdited}}

Rasa (Sanskrit: रसः) in general means the 'knowledge perceived through the rasanendriya or the sensory organ of taste (tongue)'. As "essence, juice, sap, taste, delight" the term rasa has wide import as discussed in [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]] and [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]] darshanas, [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga darshana]], [[Vedanta (वेदान्तः)|Vedanta]], classical Sanskrit Sahitya, Kavyashastra, [[Chandas (छन्दस्)|Chandas]], [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and other texts. In each of these texts, the term "Rasa" has a specific contextual meaning and associated concept. As a non-translatable it is best to use this term as is based on the context.

== ॥ Introduction ==
In Indian literary sources Rasa is used in multiple disciplines<ref>Mishra, B. (2018) Bharatiya Kavyashastra mein ras ki avadharana, ''Journal of Advances and Scholarly Researches in Allied Education'', Vol 15 (11), 573-580</ref>

# Rasa or material taste of substances. They are six in number termed shadrasas (e.g., lavana or salty taste, madhura or sweet taste) mentioned in Ayurvedic texts.
# Rasa dhatu in Ayurveda. [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)|Mercury or Parada]] is called Rasa in Ayurveda. Essence of food, bodily fluids are also denoted as rasa in Ayurveda.
# Rasa or aesthetic relish in Kavyashastra. Rasa is termed as aesthetic delight derived from poetic or dramatic representation.
# Bhakti rasa is recognized in Vedanta.
# Rasa or fluid essence of substances. Natural essence of substances (e.g., plants).
In a general sense rasa refers to "tastes" in literature dealing with the topic of dietetics and culinary art, Pakakala. Rasa in Ayurveda refers to "flavours" of six kinds as mentioned in Ashtangahrdaya samhita by Vagbhata and it indicates the pharmacological behaviour of a substance. As it stands for fluid portion of the body, it is referred to as the water-originating principle.

In Indian aesthetics, Rasa has the connotation of emotional experience, and a systematic analysis of the nature of emotion is found in Natyashastra or the science of theatrics and dramatics. In this context rasa refers to "sentiment, aesthetic relish" or the relishable quality inherent in a work of art. Bharata Muni, the author of Natyashastra enumerates eight "fundamental" emotions occurring in humans as well as animals.<ref>Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 265)</ref>

Apart from having a laukika - material or worldly connotation, Rasa also has an alauikika - non-worldly or transcendental reference. Bharata Muni though was the first Acharya to reveal the concept of Rasa, Acharya Abhinavagupta in his 'Abhinava Bharati', commentary on Bharata Muni's Natyashastra, established one of the chief theories of the transcendental nature of rasa with a philosophical foundation.<ref>Ojha, K. (2021) Abhinavagupt ka rasa vishayak siddhanta in ''International Journal of Advanced Educational Research'' Vol. 6 (4) 41-44</ref>

== ॥ Etymology ==
Rasa (रसः।rasaḥ), an ancient term is derived from the dhatu 'रस् (ras)' in the meaning of आस्वादने (āsvādane) as per Shabdakalpadhruma.<ref name=":0">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=rasa</ref>

According to Apte Pratical Sanskrit- English Dictionary<ref name=":0" />

== ॥ Rasa in Panchabhutas ==
One of the five substances, Rasa is elemental in nature.

== ॥ Rasa in Indian Arts ==

Rasa theory of Bharata<ref>https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/icp04/chapter/the-rasa-theory-of-bharata/</ref> holds primary importance alludes to eight kinds of Rasas

# Rati (Pleasure) (love), – Smiling face, sweet words, contraction of eye-brows, sidelong glances and the like.
# Hasa (Joy) – Smile and the like, i.e., laugher, excessive laugher.
# Shoka (Sorrow) (grief)- Shedding tears, lamentation, bewailing, change of color, loss of voice, looseness of limbs, falling on the ground, crying, deep breathing, paralysis, insanity, death and the like.
# Krodha (Malice) – Extended nostrils, unturned eyes, bitten lips, throbbing cheeks and the like.
#* against enemies – knitting of the eye-brows, fierce look, bitten lips, hands clasping each other, touching one’s own shoulder and breast.
#* when controlled by superiors – slightly downcast eyes, wiping off slight perspiration and not expressing any violent movement.
#* against beloved woman – very slight movement of the body, shedding tears, knitting eyebrows, sidelong glances and throbbing lips.
#* against one’s servants – threat, rebuke, dilating eyes and casting contemptuous looks of various kinds.
#* artificial – betraying signs of effort.
# Utsaha (Courage) (heroism)- steadiness, munificence, boldness of undertaking and the like.
# Bhaya (Fear) – trembling of the hands and feet, palpitation of the heart, paralysis, dryness of the mouth, licking lips, perspiration, tremor, apprehension of danger, seeking for safety, running away, loud crying and the like.
# Jugupsa (Disgust) – contracting all the limbs, spitting, narrowing down of the mouth, heartache and the like.
# Vismaya (Surprise) – wide opening the eyes, looking without winking of the eyes and movement of the eye-brows, horripilation, moving the head to and fro, the cry of ‘well done’ and the like.

== ॥ Rasa in Darshanas ==

== ॥ Rasa in Ayurveda ==

== ॥ Rasa in Agriculture and Vrikshayurveda ==

== References ==
[[Category:Sahitya]]
[[Category:Darshanas]]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Ayurveda]]
[[Category:Psychology]]

Rasa (रसः)

2026-03-03T10:05:32Z

Fordharma: adding content

{{ToBeEdited}}

Rasa (Sanskrit: रसः) in general means the 'knowledge perceived through the rasanendriya or the sensory organ of taste (tongue)'. As "essence, juice, sap, taste, delight" the term rasa has wide import as discussed in [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]] and [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]] darshanas, [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga darshana]], [[Vedanta (वेदान्तः)|Vedanta]], classical Sanskrit Sahitya, Kavyashastra, [[Chandas (छन्दस्)|Chandas]], [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and other texts. In each of these texts, the term "Rasa" has a specific contextual meaning and associated concept. As a non-translatable it is best to use this term as is based on the context.

== ॥ Introduction ==
In Indian literary sources Rasa is used in multiple disciplines<ref>Mishra, B. (2018) Bharatiya Kavyashastra mein ras ki avadharana, ''Journal of Advances and Scholarly Researches in Allied Education'', Vol 15 (11), 573-580</ref>

# Rasa or material taste of substances. They are six in number termed shadrasas (e.g., lavana or salty taste, madhura or sweet taste) mentioned in Ayurvedic texts.
# Rasa dhatu in Ayurveda. [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)|Mercury or Parada]] is called Rasa in Ayurveda. Essence of food, bodily fluids are also denoted as rasa in Ayurveda.
# Rasa or aesthetic relish in Kavyashastra. Rasa is termed as aesthetic delight derived from poetry and arts.
# Bhakti rasa is recognized in Vedanta. Most commonly Rasa refers to "tastes" in literature dealing with the topic of dietetics and culinary art, Pakakala. Rasa in Ayurveda refers to "flavours" of six kinds as mentioned in Ashtangahrdaya samhita by Vagbhata and it indicates the pharmacological behaviour of a substance. As it stands for fluid portion of the body, it is referred to as the water-originating principle.

In Indian aesthetics, Rasa has the connotation of emotional experience, and a systematic analysis of the nature of emotion is found in Natyashastra or the science of theatrics and dramatics. In this context rasa refers to "sentiment, aesthetic relish" or the relishable quality inherent in a work of art. Bharata Muni, the author of Natyashastra enumerates eight "fundamental" emotions occurring in humans as well as animals.<ref>Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 265)</ref>

== ॥ Etymology ==
Rasa (रसः।rasaḥ), an ancient term is derived from the dhatu 'रस् (ras)' in the meaning of आस्वादने (āsvādane) as per Shabdakalpadhruma.<ref name=":0">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=rasa</ref>

According to Apte Pratical Sanskrit- English Dictionary<ref name=":0" />

== ॥ Rasa in Panchabhutas ==
One of the five substances, Rasa is elemental in nature.

== ॥ Rasa in Indian Arts ==

Rasa theory of Bharata<ref>https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/icp04/chapter/the-rasa-theory-of-bharata/</ref> holds primary importance alludes to eight kinds of Rasas

# Rati (Pleasure) (love), – Smiling face, sweet words, contraction of eye-brows, sidelong glances and the like.
# Hasa (Joy) – Smile and the like, i.e., laugher, excessive laugher.
# Shoka (Sorrow) (grief)- Shedding tears, lamentation, bewailing, change of color, loss of voice, looseness of limbs, falling on the ground, crying, deep breathing, paralysis, insanity, death and the like.
# Krodha (Malice) – Extended nostrils, unturned eyes, bitten lips, throbbing cheeks and the like.
#* against enemies – knitting of the eye-brows, fierce look, bitten lips, hands clasping each other, touching one’s own shoulder and breast.
#* when controlled by superiors – slightly downcast eyes, wiping off slight perspiration and not expressing any violent movement.
#* against beloved woman – very slight movement of the body, shedding tears, knitting eyebrows, sidelong glances and throbbing lips.
#* against one’s servants – threat, rebuke, dilating eyes and casting contemptuous looks of various kinds.
#* artificial – betraying signs of effort.
# Utsaha (Courage) (heroism)- steadiness, munificence, boldness of undertaking and the like.
# Bhaya (Fear) – trembling of the hands and feet, palpitation of the heart, paralysis, dryness of the mouth, licking lips, perspiration, tremor, apprehension of danger, seeking for safety, running away, loud crying and the like.
# Jugupsa (Disgust) – contracting all the limbs, spitting, narrowing down of the mouth, heartache and the like.
# Vismaya (Surprise) – wide opening the eyes, looking without winking of the eyes and movement of the eye-brows, horripilation, moving the head to and fro, the cry of ‘well done’ and the like.

== ॥ Rasa in Darshanas ==

== ॥ Rasa in Ayurveda ==

== ॥ Rasa in Agriculture and Vrikshayurveda ==

== References ==
[[Category:Sahitya]]
[[Category:Darshanas]]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Ayurveda]]
[[Category:Psychology]]

Rasa (रसः)

2026-03-03T09:46:41Z

Fordharma: adding content

{{ToBeEdited}}

Rasa (Sanskrit: रसः) in general means the 'knowledge perceived through the rasanendriya or the sensory organ of taste (tongue)'. As "essence, juice, sap, taste, delight" the term rasa has wide import as discussed in [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]] and [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]] darshanas, [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga darshana]], [[Vedanta (वेदान्तः)|Vedanta]], classical Sanskrit Sahitya, Kavyashastra, [[Chandas (छन्दस्)|Chandas]], [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and other texts. In each of these texts, the term "Rasa" has a specific contextual meaning and associated concept. As a non-translatable it is best to use this term as is based on the context.

Most commonly Rasa refers to "tastes" in literature dealing with the topic of dietetics and culinary art, Pakakala. Rasa in Ayurveda refers to "flavours" of six kinds as mentioned in Ashtangahrdaya samhita by Vagbhata and it indicates the pharmacological behaviour of a substance. As it stands for fluid portion of the body, it is referred to as the water-originating principle.

In Indian aesthetics, Rasa has the connotation of emotional experience, and a systematic analysis of the nature of emotion is found in Natyashastra or the science of theatrics and dramatics. In this context rasa refers to "sentiment, aesthetic relish" or the relishable quality inherent in a work of art. Bharata Muni, the author of Natyashastra enumerates eight "fundamental" emotions occurring in humans as well as animals.<ref>Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 265)</ref>

== ॥ Etymology ==
Rasa (रसः।rasaḥ), an ancient term is derived from the dhatu 'रस् (ras)' in the meaning of आस्वादने (āsvādane) as per Shabdakalpadhruma.<ref name=":0">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=rasa</ref>

according to Apte Pratical Sanskrit- English Dictionary<ref name=":0" />

== ॥ Rasa in Indian Arts ==

Rasa theory of Bharata<ref>https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/icp04/chapter/the-rasa-theory-of-bharata/</ref> holds primary importance alludes to eight kinds of Rasas

# Rati (Pleasure) (love), – Smiling face, sweet words, contraction of eye-brows, sidelong glances and the like.
# Hasa (Joy) – Smile and the like, i.e., laugher, excessive laugher.
# Shoka (Sorrow) (grief)- Shedding tears, lamentation, bewailing, change of color, loss of voice, looseness of limbs, falling on the ground, crying, deep breathing, paralysis, insanity, death and the like.
# Krodha (Malice) – Extended nostrils, unturned eyes, bitten lips, throbbing cheeks and the like.
#* against enemies – knitting of the eye-brows, fierce look, bitten lips, hands clasping each other, touching one’s own shoulder and breast.
#* when controlled by superiors – slightly downcast eyes, wiping off slight perspiration and not expressing any violent movement.
#* against beloved woman – very slight movement of the body, shedding tears, knitting eyebrows, sidelong glances and throbbing lips.
#* against one’s servants – threat, rebuke, dilating eyes and casting contemptuous looks of various kinds.
#* artificial – betraying signs of effort.
# Utsaha (Courage) (heroism)- steadiness, munificence, boldness of undertaking and the like.
# Bhaya (Fear) – trembling of the hands and feet, palpitation of the heart, paralysis, dryness of the mouth, licking lips, perspiration, tremor, apprehension of danger, seeking for safety, running away, loud crying and the like.
# Jugupsa (Disgust) – contracting all the limbs, spitting, narrowing down of the mouth, heartache and the like.
# Vismaya (Surprise) – wide opening the eyes, looking without winking of the eyes and movement of the eye-brows, horripilation, moving the head to and fro, the cry of ‘well done’ and the like.

== ॥ Rasa in Darshanas ==

== ॥ Rasa in Ayurveda ==

== ॥ Rasa in Agriculture and Vrikshayurveda ==

== References ==
[[Category:Sahitya]]
[[Category:Darshanas]]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Ayurveda]]
[[Category:Psychology]]

Rasa (रसः)

2026-03-03T09:21:35Z

Fordharma: Created a new page

{{ToBeEdited}}

Rasa (Sanskrit: रसः) in general means the 'knowledge perceived through the rasanendriya or the sensory organ of taste (tongue)'. As "essence, juice, sap, taste, delight" the term rasa has wide import as discussed in Nyaya and Vaiseshika darshanas, Yoga darshana, classical Sanskrit Sahitya, Kavyashastra, Chandas, Ayurveda, Vrikshayurveda and other texts. In each of these texts, the term "Rasa" has a specific contextual meaning and concept.

Most commonly Rasa refers to "tastes" in literature dealing with the topic of dietetics and culinary art, Pakakala. Rasa in Ayurveda refers to "flavours" of six kinds as mentioned in Ashtangahrdaya samhita by Vagbhata and it indicates the pharmamacological behaviour of a substance. As it stands for fluid portion of the body, it is referred to as the water-originating principle.

In Indian aesthetics, Rasa has the connotation of emotional experience, and a systematic analysis of the nature of emotion is found in Natyashastra or the science of theatrics and dramatics. In this context rasa refers to "sentiment, aesthetic relish" or the relishable quality inherent in a work of art. Bharata Muni, the author of Natyashastra enumerates eight "fundamental" emotions occurring in humans as well as animals.<ref>Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 265)</ref>

== Etymology ==

== Rasa in Indian Arts ==

== Rasa in Ayurveda ==

== Rasa in Agriculture and Vrikshayurveda ==

== References ==
[[Category:Sahitya]]
[[Category:Darshanas]]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Ayurveda]]
[[Category:Psychology]]

Rasa (रसः) in Ayurveda

2026-03-03T08:07:31Z

Fordharma: Fordharma moved page Rasa (रसः) to Rasa (रसः) in Ayurveda without leaving a redirect: Creating a main page on Rasa separating Rasa in Ayurveda

“Rasa” (Samskrit : रसः) is one among the five qualities of dravya (द्रव्यम् substance). The term “rasa” means taste or the perception of taste. Also the guna (गुणाः quality) of the rasanendriya (रसनेन्द्रियम्) is known as rasa (the [[Rasa Dhatu (रस धातु)|rasa dhatu]] among the [[Dhatus (धातवः)|saptdhatus]] is distinct from this rasa) Rasas in dravya (substance) are known by their effects in our body.

== व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology ==
<blockquote>रस्यत आस्वाद्यत इति रसः | (Char. Samh. 1.64)<ref>Chakrapani Commentary on Charaka Samhita ([https://niimh.nic.in/ebooks/ecaraka/?mod=read Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 1 Sutram 64])</ref>

rasyata āsvādyata iti rasaḥ | (Char. Samh. 1.64)</blockquote>Meaning: Rasa means which can be perceived by the tongue or that which can be tasted.

== रसभेदाः ॥ Types of Rasas ==
There are shadrasa meaning six in number: <blockquote>रसाः स्वाद्वम्ललवणतिक्तोषणकषायकाः| षड् द्रव्यमाश्रितास्ते च यथापूर्वंबलावहाः (Asht. Hrud. 1.14-15)<ref>Ashtanga Hrudayam ([http://vedotpatti.in/samhita/Vag/ehrudayam/?mod=read&h=rasAH Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 1 Sutra 14-15])</ref>

rasāḥ svādvamlalavaṇatiktoṣaṇakaṣāyakāḥ| ṣaḍ dravyamāśritāste ca yathāpūrvaṁbalāvahāḥ (Asht. Hrud. 1.14-15)</blockquote>Meaning: Madhura, Amla, Lavana, Katu, Tikta and Kashaya are 6 types of rasa which are present in substances. These rasas are in decreasing order of providing strength to the body.

Svadu/Madhura (स्वादु / मधुरः । sweet), Amla (अम्‍ल । sour), Lavana (लवणः । salty), Katu (कटुः । pungent), Tikta (तिक्तः । bitter) and Kashaya (कषायः । astringent) are the 6 types of rasa. According to Ayurveda acharyas these rasas provide strength to the body when consumed through diet and medicines. Although all these rasas provide strength, not all of these have equal ability to provide strength. Acharya Vagbhata states that, these rasas are in decreasing order of providing strength to the body. This means madhura rasa imparts maximum strength whereas Kashaya rasa lowest.

== रसोत्पत्तिः तथा पाञ्चभौतिकत्वम् ॥ Origin of rasa and their panchabhautikatavam ==
Each of the 6 rasas constitutes of two [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|mahabhutas]] (महाभूतानि). For every rasa those 2 mahabhutas which are dominantly found in it have been specifically mentioned by Ayurveda.<ref>Asthanga Hrudayam ([http://vedotpatti.in/samhita/Vag/ehrudayam/?mod=read Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 10 Sutra 1])</ref> The dominant mahabhutas for each rasa have been listed in the table below.
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Rasa (रसः)'''
|'''Dominant Mahabhutas (महाभूताधिक्यम्)'''
|-
|Madhura
|Prithvi, jala(earth+water)
|-
|Amla
|Prithvi, tejas(earth+fire)
|-
|Lavana
|Jala, tejas(water+fire)
|-
|Katu
|Vayu, tejas(air+fire)
|-
|Tikta
|Vayu, akasha(air+ether)
|-
|Kashaya
|Vayu, prithvi(air+earth)
|}
For manifestation of any rasa, jala mahabhuta and Prthvi mahabhuta are essential.

== रस-अनुमानम् ॥ How to determine rasa ==
Rasas are found in dravyas (द्रव्यम् । substances). Thus, rasa of a dravya can be determined by either tasting that dravya (i.e. on contact of dravya with tongue/ sensory organ).<ref>Charaka Samhita ([https://niimh.nic.in/ebooks/ecaraka/?mod=read&h=nipAte Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 26 Sutram 66])</ref> According to [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Darshana shastras (दर्शनानि)]] rasa can be determined by three modes as follows,
# Pratyaksha (प्रत्यक्षम्। Direct perception by senses)- By directly tasting a dravya
# Anumana (अनुमानम्। Inference drawn on the basis of well established relationships that are previously known to the individual)- On the basis of its effects on body after its contact and
# Aptopadesha (आप्तोपदेशः। Knowledge obtained from trusted sources like classical treatises, Gurus etc)- As described in classical treatises/books
Here mainly pratyaksha pramana (प्रत्यक्ष प्रमाणम्) is used. When any dravya (द्रव्यम् । substance) comes in contact with rasanendriya (रसनेन्द्रियम् । Gustatory sense organ or taste buds in tongue) a peculiar taste is perceived this is called rasana pratyaksha jnanam (रसनाप्रत्यक्षज्ञानम् । Rasana- tongue, Pratyaksha-direct perception, Jnana-knowledge).

== अनुरसः ॥ Concept of Anurasa ==
Anurasa (अनुरसः) or uparasa (उपरसः) are those which are not perceived at first (contact with body/organs) but are perceived at the end or not at all. Anurasas are perceived by anumana pramana (अनुमानप्रमाणम् । inference) but can only be understood by aptopdesha (आप्तोपदेशः । ancient literature or classical treatises). For example, Ayurveda treatises have in depth description of various metals and minerals for medicinal use. In Ayurveda, the action of each of the medicinal drug is determined based on its rasa, [[Veeryam (वीर्यम्)|veerya]], [[Vipaka (विपाकः)|vipaka]], karma and [[Prabhava (प्रभावः)|prabhava]]. However, it is not possible to taste any raw metal/mineral to understand its rasa. In such cases, description of these medicinal substances available in classical treatises helps one to understand their various properties like rasa, veerya etc. On this basis madhura rasa in Suvarna (सुवर्णम् । Gold), rajata (रजतम् । Silver) is not perceived but is known by reading classical literature which is authentic source of information on Ayurveda. This type of knowledge about rasa or anurasa is said to be through Aptopadesha pramana.

== विविधाः रसाः तथा तेषां गुणाः ॥ Properties of rasa ==
Each of the six rasas possess peculiar properties. These properties are responsible for their specific action inside body. Therefore one can make therapeutic use of dravyas through their rasas only when one understands properties of each of these rasa as described in classical literature of Ayurveda. Effect of each rasa on various body components, consequences of excessive use of each rasa are described in brief here.

=== मधुर रसः ॥ Madhur rasa ===
It nourishes the saptdhatu, provides longevity, helps maintaining health of sensory organs, enhances bodily strength and lusture. Helps pacifying pitta and vata dosha. It also reduces burning sensation and excessive thirst. It is advantageous for skin, hair and throat. It promotes strength to those who are weak and emaciated. It has guna (properties) of being snigdha (unctuous), sheeta (cold) and guru (heavy). If consumed in excess amounts may lead to various abnormalities like obesity, laziness, excessive sleep, heaviness of the body etc.<ref name=":0">Charaka Samhita (Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 26 Sutra 43)</ref>

=== अम्‍ल रसः ॥ Amla rasa ===
Amla rasa dravyas (अम्‍ल रस द्रव्याणि । sour tasting substances) are appetizing, improve [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]] (अग्निः । digestive fire), quickly energize body as well as mind and also strengthen them. Amla rasa helps in digestion of food by balancing the water content (helps moisten the food) required for the process of digestion. It provides nourishment and energy. Enhances sensory organs by quickly refreshing them. It helps to maintain normal flow of vata dosha in body. It is believed to be good for Hrudayam(हृदयम्) (due to its action on sensory organs and mind). It increases salivation. It has guna (properties) of being laghu (light), snigdha (unctuous) and ushna (heat).

If consumed in excess amounts amla rasa leads to teeth sensitivity, increases thirst, increases pitta dosha. Also it may cause weakeness in body, heart burn and burning sensation in throat.<ref name=":0" />

=== लवण रसः ॥ Lavana rasa ===
Lavana rasa (dravya) aids digestion, improves appetite, helps to correct the sluggish digestion. It acts as expectorant and helps to clear pathways. Pacifies vata dosha, increases salivation, improves circulation by cleansing the channels, provides laxity to the body, liquefies kapha, goes well with food, not very guru (गुरुः । heavy) in nature, is snigdha (स्निग्धः । unctuous), ushna (उष्णः । hot). When consumed in excess lavana rasa aggravates pitta dosha, excessive thirst, causes skin diseases, damages teeth, causes inflammations, leads to hair fall, graying of hair.<ref name=":0" />

=== कटु रसः ॥ Katu rasa ===
Katu rasa helps to keep the mouth clean, improves digestion and food absorption, cleanses nasal channel, causes lacrimation, enhances sensory organs, alleviates sluggish digestion, swellings, heaviness of body, improves appetite, relieves itching, heal wounds, kill worms, helps remove blood clots, cleanses bodily channels, pacifies kapha dosha, is laghu (लघुः । light), ushna (उष्णः । hot) and ruksha (रुक्षः । dry) in guna (गुणः । property). If consumed in excess can cause malaise, weakness, loss of weight,burning sensation in throat,loss of strength, excess thirst, Giddiness, burning sensation in body, tremors and various vata disorders.<ref name=":0" />

=== तिक्त रसः ॥ Tikta rasa ===
Tikta rasa dravya even though are distasteful help increasing the appetite, reduces giddiness, burning sensation, itching, various skin infections, thirst. It reduces fever, improves digestion, helps reduce excess moisture, fat, lymphatic fluid, sweat, pus, pitta dosha and kapha dosha. Reduces frequent urination and feces. Tikta rasa is ruksha (dry), sheeta (cold), laghu (light) in guna (property). If there is excess utilization it will cause weakness, fatigue, mental confusion, giddiness, dryness in mouth and various vata dosha related disorders.<ref name=":0" />

=== कषाय रसः ॥ Kashaya rasa ===
Kashaya rasa is constipating and binding in nature. It helps in healing the damaged part, pacifies kapha, pitta dosha and rakta dhatu. It is ruksha (dry), sheeta (cold), heavy in guna (property). If there is over utilization of this rasa, it may lead to dryness in mouth, abdominal distention, speech disturbances, darkening of complexion, indigestion, weakness. It can also cause various vata dosha disorders when in excess.<ref name=":0" />

== Reference ==
<references />
[[Category:Ayurveda]]

Ancient Indian Psychology (भारतीय मनोविज्ञानम्)

2025-12-31T13:03:14Z

Fordharma: added category

Manovijnana (Samskrit: मनोविज्ञानम्) pertains to the science of the mind or of mental states and processes, and of human and animal behaviour. Broadly these aspects are studied in the modern branch of Psychology and Psychiatry. Understanding the [[Manas (मनः)|manas]] or mind, thought, actions of the sense organs and consciousness have remained as elusive subjects and beyond the reach of common understanding. Understanding the various mental processes and managing mental health has remained a major challenge to modern scientists and doctors till this day. It is time to reflect on the various siddhantas and methods used by ancient seers who made unfathomable advancements in the study of consciousness and mental processes.

The source of man's insights are twofold - exploring the wonders of the world outward and the states of the mind inward. In the Vedas, the boundless diversity of nature engages attention. In the Upanishads we return inwards to explore the depths of inner world. The interest of the seers has always been in understanding and in controlling the mental processes encountered in the inward journey. The Bharatiya way of philosophic analysis started with the reflection on the inner Self of man with the ultimate goal, of all mental training, being the attainment of [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|Moksha]]. We find that the psychological and physiological disciplines developed in the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], the [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]] sutras, the Bhagavad Gita, and in the schools of Buddhism and Jainism. Practicing scholars were astonished alike at the psychosomatic views held by the great medical authorities of India, namely, Charaka and Sushruta. It has been one of the wonders in intellectual history that though there was no independent branch of study like Psychology in ancient India, the ancient thinkers had independently developed highly systematic views regarding mind and its operations, particularly with reference to mental health and well-being.<ref name=":0">Prof. B. Kuppuswamy (1993) ''Source book of Ancient Indian Psychology.'' New Delhi: Konark Publishers Pvt Ltd. </ref>

== Introduction ==
Ancient Indian thought is not only rich in describing the metaphysical but also in psychological aspects. While there was no special discipline to study Manovijnana, loosely corresponding to the modern subject of Psychology, we find numerous valuable insights about this topic in as early as the Vedic times. Each school of philosophy, medicine, aesthetics etc., developed its own theory of mind.

A few outstanding examples of well known contributions of Indian seers in the field of psychology include the following.<ref name=":1">Prof. B. Kuppuswamy (1985) ''Elements of Ancient Indian Psychology.'' Delhi: Konark Publishers Pvt Ltd. </ref>

# The Gayatri Mantra in [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] and [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]]
# Shiva sankalpa mantras in Yajurveda
# Understanding the power of the Self in Kena Upanishad
# The four states of Consciousness in Mandukya Upanishad
# [[Panchakosha (पञ्चकोषाः)|Panchakoshas]] described in the Taittriya Upanishad

The Vedic thinkers were chiefly preoccupied with the aspects of consciousness, its relation to the body, sense organs, and mind to the states of consciousness, viz., waking, dreaming, sleep and above all the turiya or the fourth state. With the rise of theories of materialism (Charvaka, Lokayuta), Buddhism and Jainism, the focus shifted to attention, perception, inference and illusion. Memory, imagination, feelings and emotions, thoughts and a way to express them, their relation to the development of language were paid considerable contemplation. Apart from these dynamics of the mind, thoughts and behaviour, there was a great deal of concern regarding meditation, aesthetics, carnal pleasures and religion, all of which played a significant role in psychological processes of a human being.<ref name=":1" />

== Manas in Sanatana Dharma ==
Firstly, the term "mind" is not a suitable translation for "[[Manas (मनः)|manas]]" as is the case with many other concepts expressed in [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]]. The term 'mind' is limited to cognition, whereas 'manas' captures cognition, emotion, and behaviour. However, in this article, manas is loosely translated as mind. Mind has been conceived to be the functional element of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] (Soul or Self) in the Vedas.<ref name=":6">Bhawuk, Dharm P.S. ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' Springer Publications. </ref>

In the Vedas, the Rigveda and Yajurveda, prayers or stutis light up the inner world of a person with noble thoughts. It has been mentioned that thoughts determine facial appearance, and influence the expression; thoughts can be purified through mantras. Such purified thoughts influence the natural instincts, thus preventing mental imbalance and pain.<ref name=":4">Gautam, Shiv (1999) ''Mental health in ancient India and its relevance to modern psychiatry.'' Indian Journal of Psychiatry 41, 1, 5--18</ref> It should be noted that while thoughts are reflected on the organs of the body, Manas itself has no specific organ located in the body, but consists only in its functions.<ref name=":2" />

==== Concepts of Manas in Rigveda ====
In Rigveda we find mantras depicting the concepts of the speed of mind, methods and prayers for mental happiness, and methods to increase medha (intelligence).<ref name=":4" /> <blockquote>मनो॒ न योऽध्व॑नः स॒द्य एत्येक॑: स॒त्रा सूरो॒ वस्व॑ ईशे । (Rig. Veda. 1.71.9)</blockquote>In this mantra, we find that just like the mind, '''[[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]]''' alone travels on his celestial path with great speed.<ref>Pt. Sripada Damodara Satvalekar (See Page 179 of Subodh Bhashya for Explanation of [https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Rigveda_Subodh_Bhasya_Vol_I/#book/187 Rigveda. 1.71.9])</ref> The ancients were well aware of this particular quality of the mind. <blockquote>का त॒ उपे॑ति॒र्मन॑सो॒ वरा॑य॒ भुव॑दग्ने॒ शंत॑मा॒ का म॑नी॒षा । (Rig. Veda 1.76.1)</blockquote>In this mantra, the seer talks about finding ways to make the deity '''[[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]]''' favourable, - what are the ways to make your mind happy? Which prayer by us will give you sukh (happiness)? <ref>Pt. Sripada Damodara Satvalekar (See Page 188 of Subodh Bhashya for Explanation of [https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Rigveda_Subodh_Bhasya_Vol_I/#book/197 Rigveda. 1.76.1])</ref> It has been stated that purification of the mind prevents diseases in human beings therefore one should have noble thoughts. The power of mind in healing has also been described in Rigveda.<blockquote>उषो॒ ये ते॒ प्र यामे॑षु यु॒ञ्जते॒ मनो॑ दा॒नाय॑ सू॒रय॑: । (Rig. Veda. 1.48.4)</blockquote>Rigveda mantras mention about the ways to increase concentration, developing habits such as getting up in the Ushakala or Brahmamuhurta for adhyayan (studies) and performing good activities such as dana (charity). Any person who controls his mind from wandering and engages in good activities will become mentally sharp. The prayer to the deity '''Usha''' thus increases the mental faculties and generates noble thoughts. <ref>Pt. Sripada Damodar Satvalekar (See Page 116 of Subodh Bhashya [https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Rigveda_Subodh_Bhasya_Vol_I/#book/125 for Rigveda Mantra 1.48.4])</ref>

That the personality traits in a human being are influenced by the '''[[Trigunas (त्रिगुणाः)|Trigunas]]''' the [[Sattva (सत्त्वम्)|Sattva]], [[Rajas (रजः)|Rajas]] and [[Tamas (तमः)|Tamo]] gunas has been described in the Rigveda.<ref name=":4" /> Psychopathology was understood by these trigunas in Ayurveda system of medicine.

The famous Gayatri Mantra in the Rigveda (3.62.10) which is also present in the Yajurveda, is the essence of the Vedas. The prayer is rendered as follows:<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>''"We meditate upon that adorable efflungence of the resplendent vivifier, Savitr (Sun); May he stimulate our intellects"''</blockquote>In this mantra, mans asks, not for happiness or riches, but for a keen intellect and '''for enlightenment'''. It embodies in the form of a prayer, the highest aspiration of a man to come into contact with the universal consciousness.

Another case of the famous allegory of two birds indicates the recognition of '''two aspects of personality''', one the bodily aspect eager to satisfy materialistic needs or bhoganubhava, while the other is the enlightened aspect of human personality, who as a passive spectator is unaffected by the worldly experience. <blockquote>द्वा सु॑प॒र्णा स॒युजा॒ सखा॑या समा॒नं वृ॒क्षं परि॑ षस्वजाते । तयो॑र॒न्यः पिप्प॑लं स्वा॒द्वत्त्यन॑श्नन्न॒न्यो अ॒भि चा॑कशीति ॥२०॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.164.20)</blockquote>According to Sayanacharya, the two birds refer to the individual Self and the Supreme Being dwelling in one body.

==== Concepts of Manas in Yajurveda ====
In Yajurveda mind has been conceptualized as the inner flame of knowledge. The famous Shiva Sankalpa of Yajurveda (34, 1-6) is a remarkable description of the mind.<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>तन् मे मनः शिवसंकल्पमस्तु । may my mind take an auspicious determination. (Shuk. Yaju. Veda. 34.1)<ref>Shiva Sankalpamastu mantras in Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 34])</ref></blockquote>In 34.1 manas is identified as a traveller, described as "that which goes our afar" in waking state and takes charge even while at rest in sleeping state. It is looked upon as being swift in motion, unhampered by the limitations of time and space. It is said to consist of intelligence, feeling and determination. The mind is described as "the light of lights" which illuminates all cognitions; it is the master of all sense organs. It is an instrument for the Jivatma.

In 34.2 following three characteristics of manas are identified:

# Thoughtful and intelligent people or sages who apply themselves to proper karma use manas in the performance of yajna i.e., manas is needed in the performance of auspicious deeds or yajna.
# Manas stays in the center of the body of living beings
# It stays in the yajna as a venerable being.

In 34.3, the following three characteristics of manas are noted:

# manas is characterized simultaneously as having extreme patience (dhira) and as the deep thinker or experiencer of awareness (chetaha), as it contemplates on special knowledge (prajna).
# Further, manas is characterized as the immortal light within the living being.
# Without manas no work can be performed or manas is said to be the performer of all works.

In 34.4, the following two characteristics of manas are presented:

# Manas is characterized as indestructible and the holder of all that is in the past, present, and the future. In other words, without manas we cannot experience or understand the three phases of time – past, present, and future. Manas is indestructible. Manas is beyond time or transcends time.
# Manas permeates the seven elements (body, work organs, sense organs, manas, buddhi, Atman, and paramAtmA) and spreads the yajna and is thus characterized as the one that nourishes yajna.

In 34.5, the following three characteristics of manas are noted.

# Manas is characterized as the seat of the veda mantras and lifted to the highest level.
# Manas is depicted as the holder of the chariot that the vedas are.
# It is said to be permeating the Chittam of a living being.

Finally, in 34.6, the following three characteristics of manas are captured.

# Manas is characterized as the able charioteer who controls the horses of the chariot in different directions as necessary. A metaphor is used to characterize manas as the controller of the journey of human life.
# Manas is characterized as the entity that directs humans toward various goals.
# And finally the seat of manas is stated to be the human heart, and it is characterized as something that does not get old and is very powerful.

It is clear from the above that manas is a complex construct. These six mantras present 24 characteristics of manas, and many of them are captured in metaphors. These characteristics provide a rich description of the construct of manas and could be the starting point for developing a typology and a theory of manas. It should be particularly noted that the vedic sages found it appropriate to pray to the manas before starting auspicious tasks or deeds related to yajna, which continues to this day as these mantras are chanted at the beginning of the Rudra Astadhyayi.<ref name=":6" />

Manas is the principle which is the basis of memory and anticipation (past, present and future). It holds all experiences and all memories together. It is that which leads and controls all the activities of man. It is the basis of all accomplishments in war as well as in peace time.<ref name=":1" />

Manas is the seat of Sankalpa, it is the essence of manas. Sankalpa - resolution, decision and Vikalpa - indecision and irresolution, doubt and hesitation are the two facets of the manas. Shiva sankalpa mantras present a prayer that mind should not only be of firm resolve but also of auspicious (Shiva) resolve, that is constructive and growth oriented.<ref name=":1" />

==== Concepts of Manas in Atharvaveda ====
In Atharvaveda, we find that the seers recognised the power of thoughts. Evil thoughts, i.e., thoughts which are anti-social and destructive, lead to anti-social and destructive deeds. So the task of man is to discriminate and reject evil thoughts.<ref name=":1" />

Atharvaveda describes “Manas” as an instrument of hypnotism and talks in details about will power, emotion, inspiration, and consciousness. It also describes emotional states such as grief, envy, pleasure, hostility, attachment, laziness etc. “Unmad” (psychosis) has been mentioned as a deluded state of mind in Vedas with etiology suggestive of both organic (worms/microorganisms, fever, etc.) and functional (rakshasa, gandharvas, Apsaras etc and sins toward Gods) origin with feelings of guilt.<ref name=":5" />

==== Concepts of Manas in Upanishads ====
Significant mention and discussion about mind, its states, qualities etc is found in important upanishads such as the [[Chandogya Upanishad (छान्दोग्योपनिषतद्)|Chandogya]], Svetashvatara, Brhadaranyaka, Katha, Kena and Mundaka Upanishads.

Kathopanishad declares the Self conjoined with the sense organs and manas (mind) is the experiencer (bhokta). The mind is superior to the sense-organs and the buddhi (intellect) is superior to the mind.

==== Concepts of Manas in Bhagavadgita ====
[[Bhagavad Gita (भगवद्गीता)|Bhagavad Gita]] is considered to be the simplified and condensed form of the Vedas and Upanishads. It has one of the earliest written descriptions of anxiety and depression as seen in Arjuna and also describes the several aspects of psychotherapy.<ref name=":5" /> Manas appears in many places in the Bhagavadgita (1.30, 2.55 & 60 & 67, 3.40, 3.42, 5.19, 6: 12, 14, 25, 26, 34, 35; 7.4, 8.12, 10.22, 11.45, 12.2 & 8, 15.7 & 9, 17.11 & 16, 18.33). In the first adhyaya we see that Arjuna expressed '''confusion of manas''', and so by extension, it can also be stated that manas can also see without confusion or see things clearly. In the second adhyaya we see that Manas is characterized as the '''seat of all desires'''. Shloka 2.60 indicates that the '''sense-organs work through the manas''', and they have a reciprocal relationship. Shloka 2.67 indicates that '''prajna (or buddhi) resides in the manas''', and that manas can get captured by the sense that it is using or is associated with. In the third adhyaya the '''relationship between manas with desires''' is explained. In shloka 3.41, Krishna explains to Arjuna the hierarchy of the that the five senses are said to be superior to the body, whereas the manas is considered superior to the senses, buddhi is said to be superior to manas, and the atman is superior to even buddhi. <blockquote>इन्द्रियाणि पराण्याहुरिन्द्रियेभ्यः परं मनः । मनसस्तु परा बुद्धिर्यो बुद्धेः परतस्तु सः ॥ (Bhag. Gita. 3.41) </blockquote>Thus, '''manas is above the body and senses''', which is also captured in the Indian conceptualization of self where manomaya is more subtle than the annamaya and pranamaya selves. But more subtle than the manomaya self are vijnanmaya and Anandamaya selves. Thus, manas stands in the middle of the five-level concept of self and thus is an intermediary in understanding the Atman.<ref name=":6" />

Having a '''balanced manas or equanimity''' is a very important aspect for mental health explained in shloka 5.19 for those whose manas is established in equanimity have in effect established themselves in brahman. This characteristic helps one understand the effects of rage, anger, greed, fear on manas and deal with situations in life with the required equanimity. The essence of the sixth adhyaya is that manas can be controlled by training it to '''practice dhyanayoga'''. In shlokas 24 and 25 of the sixth adhyaya, the role and state of manas in dhyana is captured, and the role of '''buddhi in taming the manas''' through practice and detachment is established.<ref name=":6" />

In the eleventh adhyaya, we find that '''manas is stated to be the center for emotions like fear'''. Here we find that manas can mean both mind and heart in English depending on the context. Hence literal translation of manas as mind is not appropriate. Another important concept of manas is described in the seventeenth adhyaya; the tapas of manas. The '''tapas of manas''' is defined as one in which one keeps the manas happy, kind, silent, self-controlled, and pure. What is important to note that actions, speech, and manas provide the criteria for defining concepts like tapas, yajna, dhriti or determination (18.33), and so forth, and the one done with the manas is considered to be of the highest level. For example, nonviolence is to be practiced at three levels, in actions, in speech, and in the manas, in ascending order. Therefore, it is not enough to practice nonviolence, truthfulness, or any other virtue in actions and speech but also at the highest level in the manas. As noted earlier, manas cannot be translated as mind without losing significant aspects of its meaning. For example, saying that nonviolence is practiced in the mind does not do justice, because when it is done with the manas, it includes emotion, cognitions, and behavioral intentions, which is not the case with mind.<ref name=":6" />

== The Mind and its Mysteries ==

=== Distinction between Hrday (हृदयम्) and Manas (मनः) ===
The ancient seer had doubtless his share of joys and sorrows, passions and dejections, moods and urges in life. And he had the right sense to turn his attention to these, 'inner breezes' within his own heart. So it was the ''''heart'''<nowiki/>' (हृद्) that was involved in all these psychological experiences. In the role of poets who composed the suktas, they often spoke of

* 'the pangs of grief in the heart' (हृ॒त्सु शोकै॑... Rig. Veda. 10.103.12)
* 'holding fear in the heart' (भियं॒ दधा॑ना॒ हृद॑येषु॒... Rig. Veda. 10.84.7)
* 'praises with all the heart' (हृदामतिं... Rig. Veda. 3.26.8)

It is verily the 'heart' that is touched on when the intoxicating Soma enters the system. The heart indeed is the fountain of all 'song'. It is surely not the mere physical heart that is alluded to by the poet, but the psychological faculty characterized by 'feeling'; but of course the physical heart is the one bodily organ readily affected by intense feelings. It is different from the [[Manas (मनः)|Manas]] (Mind), but its close relative.<ref name=":2">Rao, Ramachandra. S. K. (1962) Development of Psychological Thought in India. Mysore: Kavyalaya Publishers. </ref>

The heart is identified as the source of all involuntary, irrational and normally uncontrolled psychological processes. Fear enters, not mind, but heart as expressed by the poet saying, इन्द्र हृ॒दि यत्ते॑ ज॒घ्नुषो॒ भीरग॑च्छत् । "O Indra, if there arises fear in your heart at the time of killing Vrtra...." (Rigveda. 1.32.14). It is also not the mind but the heart that experiences longing, grief or pleasure.<ref name=":2" /> We see in the [[Yama Yami Samvada (यम यमि सम्वादः)|Yama Yami Samvada]], the longing of Yami and accusations she throws (ब॒तो ब॑तासि यम॒ नैव ते॒ मनो॒ हृद॑यं चाविदाम ।) for the lack of affection towards her (Rigveda. 10.10).

The Vedic seer has rightly recognized an intimate connection between the heart and the mind; indeed many references point to the mind being located in the heart. However, mind has an independent consideration also.<ref name=":2" />

=== Relationship of Manas with Body ===
Kathopanishad (Adhyaya 1 Tritiyavalli) clearly points to the role of Manas in body it's relationship between mind and body.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>आत्मानँ रथितं विद्धि शरीरँ रथमेव तु । बुद्धिं तु सारथिं विद्धि मनः प्रग्रहमेव च ॥ ३ ॥

इन्द्रियाणि हयानाहुर्विषयाँ स्तेषु गोचरान् । आत्मेन्द्रियमनोयुक्तं भोक्तेत्याहुर्मनीषिणः ॥ ४ ॥ (Kath. Upan. 1.3.3-4)</blockquote>The body is compared to the chariot and the Self is the rider in it. The intellect (buddhi) is the charioteer. The sense organs are the horses and they tend to roam in (worldly) matters; the mind (manas) is the reins with which the horses are held in control. The body, the sense organs, and mind are all the instruments of the Self. It is through them that the Self knows, feels and acts. The Self is called as the Bhokta - the Knower, the Enjoyer and the Agent of Action.<ref name=":0" />

Understanding this aspect greatly aids in developing psychological models to tackle the mental health problems arising out of the negative aspects clouding the manas and mano-dourbalyas (weaknesses of manas).

=== Relationship of Manas with Universe ===
While the Kathopanishad relates to the inward microcosmic role and relationship with the human being, the macrocosmic role of manas is understood from the Hiranyagarbha (Creator of the Universe) Sukta (of Rigveda.10.121) and the concept of Mahat (an evolute of Prakriti) in Samkhya darshana.

Questions pertaining to similarity and universality of the world religions, deep-seated belief systems, morals, ethics and concepts of fair, right or wrong are a few aspects which relate to the term "collective consciousness" - a characteristic of the macrocosmic role of manas. Collective consciousness refers to the idea that a segment of the deepest mind is genetically inherited and not shaped by personal experience. It is about understanding what makes society work. Migratory birds returning to their far off native habitats is one such example. Basically, collective consciousness is a constellation of ideas, beliefs, and values that a great number of individuals in a given society share. It also explains how one can know things they have never learned. Research studies in this less explored areas of psychology are underway.<ref>https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/genetic-memory-how-we-know-things-we-never-learned/#</ref><ref>https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-collective-unconscious-2671571#:~:text=What%20Is%20the%20Collective%20Conscious,defined%20by%20psychoanalyst%20Carl%20Jung</ref>
=== Qualities of the Mind ===
Mind is ''par excellence'' an instrument of reason, it symbolizes the rational faculty of man. Its function is likened to the winnowing of barley through the seive; the function being selective reception and filtration of data. Mind can be truthful, unruffled, mature, firm and sharp. It is essentially intellectual and only indirectly connected with our emotional life. Mind is even invoked to exercise restraint over the tempestuous surgings of the heart. Lovelorn [[Pururava Urvashi Samvada (पुरुरवा-ऊर्वशी संवादः)|Pururava]] implores his beloved Urvashi to return home and he asks her to 'stay with mind'. Mind is said to 'investigate and consider' into deeds. While the heart represents rather the stirred-up state of the individual, mind symbolizes the reflective aspect of mental life. Maintenance of mind contributes to life; and death is associated with the dissolution of mind.<ref name=":2" />

The qualities of Manas are spoken of in Bhagavadgita; that it is volatile, turbulent, obstinate and restless, characterized by "chanchalatva", its control is as difficult as the control of wind.<ref name=":0" /> <blockquote>चञ्चलं हि मन: कृष्ण प्रमाथि बलवद्दृढम् | तस्याहं निग्रहं मन्ये वायोरिव सुदुष्करम् || 34|| (Bhag. Gita. 6.33)</blockquote>Not only was mind important in individual life, its contribution to social well-being was also recognized. The very last mantra of the Rigveda concludes with the celebrated prayer which emphasizes the psychological concord in social life:<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>स॒मा॒नी व॒ आकू॑तिः समा॒ना हृद॑यानि वः । स॒मा॒नम॑स्तु वो॒ मनो॒ यथा॑ व॒: सुस॒हास॑ति ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.191.4)</blockquote>Meaning: May our resolutions be uniform and our hearts united; May our minds be one, that we all live well together.<ref name=":2" />

=== Types of Mind ===
The mind of man was looked upon as having three aspects:

* the sub-conscious
* the conscious
* the super-conscious

The psychic experiences such as telepathy and clairvoyance were considered to be neither abnormal nor miraculous. They were considered to be the powers of the mind which could be developed with effort. They were classified as siddhis, which were attained with training the mind, nevertheless were to be refrained from use. Siddhis such as clairvoyance and telepathy were looked upon as obstacles in the development of one's personality. The 'abnormal' psychic phenomena like ecstasy, trance etc were considered as the working of the 'superconscious mind'. The Yoga system in particular and other systems of thought refer to these superconscious states of the mind and how they can be deliberately induced and the pitfalls to be avoided in the process.<ref name=":0" />

=== Avasthas or States of Mind ===
Indian approach to understand psychological aspects included the division of mental states or manasika avasthas into four categories:<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":0" />

# '''Jagrat or awake state''': In this state the individual interacts with the world. The objects and processes in the world stimulate the individual through the sense organs with which he perceives and he reacts through the motor organs. The whole process is organized and integrated by the four processes: manas (mental), [[Buddhi (बुद्धिः)|buddhi]] (intellectual), chitta (here memory) and ahamkara (the self-sense). Thus in this waking state we are aware of the external world and the dependence of the self on the body is predominant. The Upanishads use the terms Bhokta (one who experiences) and Karta (agent of action) which together characterize the conscious activities of the individual.
# '''Svapana or dream state''': Like the waking state, the dreaming state also involves the functioning of the manas. The sense organs are in a quiescent state, and hence termed as 'senses are united with manas'. While in the waking state the manas receives inputs from outside world and builds them as ideas, in this dream state, the manas creates a world on its own. It uses the impressions from the waking state as material to form the dreams, but the experiences are not like those of memory. During the experience the dream is felt to be as real as perceptual experience; as a result dreams have been described as "perception without sensation".
# '''Sushupti or dreamless deep-sleep state''': In deep, dreamless sleep, the manas as well as senses are quiescent. In this state there is no consciousness of individuality. However, there is a sense of personal identity since on waking one says that one slept well. But during the "sushupti" state itself there is no awareness of oneself or of any object. In this state a pauper or a prince feel the same way. Another characteristic feature of this state is the experience of bliss, even though he recalls it only after waking up. The Mandukya Upanishad describes, in Sushupti we have neither dreams nor desires. In this state we are lifted above all desires and freed from conflicts and frustrations.
# '''Samadhi or Turiya or the supernormal mental state (Superconscious state)''': While the first three states are common to all human beings and within the experience of all; the fourth state is an uncommon supramental state experienced by a few. This state resembles the sushupti state in all respects but one. Here also we find that there is withdrawal of normal consciousness, absence of all desires and manifestation of bliss. However, sushupti state is transitional and achieved without any effort on the part of a person without any training, the turiya state is the result of concentration and meditation; it results from personal effort and long training. Turiya state also bears resemblance to the anandamaya state as mentioned in Taittriya Upanishad (2. 1-5) as being higher than the experience of the conscious (manomaya) and the self-conscious (vijnanamaya) levels of life. According to Hiriyanna, one can get some insight into the turiya state of consciousness on the basis of the experience in the sushupti state and anandamaya experience.

An interesting and famous story of Prajapati and Indra in the Chandogya Upanishad, leads one, step by step from the identification of oneself with the body in the waking state, to the identification of one's form in the dream state, to the experience or lack of it in the dreamless state and finally identification with the universe as a whole, from finite to the infinite in the turiya state.

=== Shaktis or Powers of Mind ===
There are three Shaktis (powers, potencies) in the mind, viz.,

# Ichha Shakti (Will): A desire arises in the mind.
# KriyaShakti (Action): The mind exerts to have this desire gratified.
# Jnana Shakti (Knowledge): It plans, schemes and finds out methods, etc., for the achievement of the desired object.

Vedana-Shakti (power of perception), Smarana-Shakti or Smriti-Shakti (power of memory), Bhavana-Shakti (Power of imagination), Manisha-Shakti (power of judgment), Ichha-Shakti or Sankalpa-Shakti (will or volition) and Dharana-Shakti (power to hold) are the six important powers of the mind.<ref>Sivananda Swami (1983) ''Mind and its mysteries and control.'' Garhwal: Divine Life Society. (Page 57)</ref>

== Methods to Analyze Mind ==
Ancient thinkers adopted some methods to analyze and study the problems of the mind and behaviour. These methods were not recorded as such and are found explained in almost each discipline of philosophy.

# Observation was found to be a very important method in the study of behaviour.
# Introspection
# Reasoning
# Analysis of Anubhava or Experience
# Analysis through questions and seeking answers

The great emphasis on dhyana, meditation, is to enable an individual to follow the path so that he can have his own experience and verify for himself. Experience and realization are the dominant features of all Indian systems of thought. The guru-shishya relationship is akin to the relationship between a psychoanalyst and his patient in some respects. This is why it can be looked upon as a form of the clinical method according to Prof. Kuppuswamy.<ref name=":1" />

== Mind as a Cause of Bodily Ailments ==
According to ancient Indian texts, an ideal person is expected to manage one’s life in spite of adversities of any nature. The following integrated definition of mental health is based on the descriptions from mental health textbooks and from the description of an ideal person from the Indian texts.<ref name=":7">Shamasundar C. ''Relevance of ancient Indian wisdom to modern mental health – A few examples.'' Indian J Psychiatry 2008;50:138-43.</ref><blockquote>''"A mentally healthy person attends to one’s legitimate duties in personal, family, social and occupational areas fulfilling spiritual, affectional, and material needs of self and family in harmony among one’s role functions, one’s abilities and limitations, prevailing circumstances and righteous means with sincerity and honesty, hope and confidence, and contentment."''<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>
Rigvedic seers identified that suffering due to mental illnesses (vyatha) could be avoided by prayers. The following mantra depicts the earnest request for '''protection from manasik vyatha''' (mental suffering).<blockquote>अ॒हं सो अ॑स्मि॒ यः पु॒रा सु॒ते वदा॑मि॒ कानि॑ चित् । तं मा॑ व्यन्त्या॒ध्यो॒ ३ वृको॒ न तृ॒ष्णजं॑ मृ॒गं वि॒त्तं मे॑ अ॒स्य रो॑दसी ॥७॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.105.7)</blockquote>Summary: However much a man becomes scholarly and wise, he is chased by mental suffering just like a thirsty deer is chased by a pack of wolves. Even after attaining wisdom a man's mind is far from being calm, thirst for worldly enjoyments and anger keep him unsettled. Even those who recite stotras, pray, perform sadhana and sing bhajans are not exempted from mental suffering completely. They are consumed by manasik vyatha, just like how a starched cloth is eaten by mice. Just like how mice consume the starch applied to the threads of a cloth, similarly (the mice such as) kama, krodha etc thrive on worldly desires (starch of bhog iccha) applied on the mind thereby destroying the mental peace of a person. A man surrounded from all sides with many mental worries is just like a man stuck among many wives. O! Dyavaprthvi, understand my suffering and protect me<ref>Pt. Sripada Damodara Satvalekar (See Page 188 of Subodh Bhashya for Explanation of [https://vedicheritage.gov.in/flipbook/Rigveda_Subodh_Bhasya_Vol_I/#book/273 Rigveda. 1.105.7 - 8])</ref>.

Greater number of diseases are now believed to be functional and caused by maladjustment, conflict, frustration, or lack of mental balance with consequent disorder of the nervous system. How can the mind and nerves affect the body in such a way as to cause organic disease?

When the nerves do not function properly, ailments appear in certain organs. Psychologists tell us that many of the so called organic diseases had their beginning when the organs could not function properly owing to mental maladjustments, conflict, and consequent lack of balance in the nervous system. It is well known that the nervous system plays a vital and most important part in our lives. It is closely connected with the mind and is easily affected by the slightest mental disorder. Therefore, mental troubles which are reflected in the nervous system can be shown as the real cause of many functional diseases. Also many cases of insanity, neuroses and psychoses, can be traced to mental dissatisfaction and agitation, frustration and conflict.<ref name=":3">Swami Akhilananda. ''Hindu Psychology, Its Meaning for the West.'' London: George Routledge & Sons Ltd.</ref>

Although western psychologists formed different schools of thought according to their various theories of the subjective and objective elements of consciousness and the relation of these elements to the physical body, they all studied the conscious elements only, ignoring the subconscious and superconscious states of mind. From their observations, many of them came to the conclusion that consciousness and soul had no existence separate from physical brain matter and that they were really only products of brain matter. Materialistic thinkers completely ignored the fact that there could be a separate existence of mind or consciousness.

=== Mind exists beyond body ===
Further the mind usually functions in ordinary persons through the nervous system and brain cells, just as electricity functions and is manifested through wires and electrical apparatus. Yet one cannot conclude that the electricity and the wires are identical. Similarly, the mind in its functionings, conscious or otherwise, cannot be identified with the instruments, such as nerves and brain cells, through which it works or has expression.

The trend of modern science, unlike the older schools of thought are taking a liberal point of view in recent years and are open to the conviction that the mind may continue to exist even after the dissolution of the body and brain.<ref name=":3" />

According to Freud, Jung, and other psychologists, the greater portion of the mind is actually submerged, unknown to every one of us. Indian psychology agrees with them in this respect. The submerged mind, the subconscious state, is a potent factor and powerful enough to determine even conscious tendencies. Often we do not realize what influences are hidden there. A man may not be aware of the forces that lie beneath the surface of his mind, nor can these forces be suspected by an untrained observer. Indian psychologists call these hidden mental forces as "'''samskaras'''". These samskaras are different from the [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|Samskaras]] or purificatory sacraments prescribed in the Grhyasutras to be undergone from birth to death.<ref name=":3" /> The mind is thus a storehouse of impressions of these past experiences also called as Samskaras. Vedanta philosophy conceptualizes Atman as the core of personality which is the prime control of the mind, body, and intellect, but '''Vasanas''' (or the inherent tendencies or predispositions) determine the nature and activities originating from them.<ref name=":4" /> This difference between the mind and Atman has always confused the Western philosophers, till the researches of Freud, Jung, and Adler recognized the reality of unconscious. Cartesian dualism differentiating mind from matter is very recent to the Western thought while the Indian philosophy, particularly the Upanishads understood the mind “more from within than from without.”<ref name=":5">Mishra A, Mathai T, Ram D. ''History of psychiatry: An Indian perspective''. Ind Psychiatry J 2018;27:21-6</ref>

=== Tendencies of the Mind ===
Ancient Indian seer-psychologists do not agree with the view that man has a basic destructive tendency. Suicide, war, and all other such destructive tendencies are not expressions of the normal mind. It seems that Freud and other psychoanalysts make unnecessary and uncalled-for generalizations from the study of pathological cases. It is also equally illogical and superficial to trace the death or destructive urge even in religious self-abnegation and sacrifice. An unbiased understanding of the true spirit of religious culture will convince us that Freudian conclusions of this sort are thoroughly unjustified. The view of the Indian psychologists is just the opposite. They come to the conclusion that there is an urge for eternal happiness and eternal existence in the human mind. The search after abiding happiness, bliss, is the real motive power behind man’s activities both conscious and unconscious. According to the Indian psychological schools, the greatest expression of mind lies in its total illumination, which is achieved by the subjective methods of concentration and meditation and consequent mental integration. The mind must be synthesized in order for a person to achieve real success. Greatness of mind can be judged not by its ability in action but rather by its integration and unification.<ref name=":3" />

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Ayurveda]]
[[Category:Shastras]]
[[Category:Yoga]]
[[Category:Psychology]]

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

2025-12-02T14:11:33Z

Fordharma: /* Concept of Motion */ added content

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Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":0">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>

== Introduction ==
Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometers per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time.

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.

== Source Texts for Physics in India ==
There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.

# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.
# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.
# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.
# '''Puranas''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>
# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.
# '''Siddhanta granthas''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.
# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.
# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, Mahabharata, Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.
## '''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.
## '''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.
## '''Natyashastra''' - describes various musical instruments and their acoustical characteristics
## '''Agasthya Samhita''' - describes electrical cells

== Padarthas in Vaiseshika Darshana ==
In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides matter, or substance into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":0" />

# Substance (dravya)
# Quality (guna)
# Action (karma)
# Generality (sāmānya)
# Individuality (viśesa)
# Inherence (samavāya)

Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:

* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref name=":8">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* स्पर्शवान् वायुः । वैशेषिक-२,१.४ । Vayu (Air) has touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
*

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===
In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include

# रूप or form/shape/colour
# रस or taste
# गन्ध or smell
# स्पर्श or touch
# संख्या or numbers/counting
# परिमाणानि or various measures such as length, area, volume, weight etc.
# पृथक्त्वं is being distinguished (to be separated)
# संयोग is conjunction or joining (or combination)
# विभाग is disjunction, disjoining or division
# परत्व is being next (spatially next or temporally later or subsequent)
# अपरत्व is being previous (spatially previous or temporally previous or earlier)
# बुद्धयः intellects (several)
# सुख is happiness
# दुःख is sorrow
# इच्छा is desire
# द्वेष is aversion
# प्रयत्नाः relates to efforts

The first 11 (from rupa to aparatva) are the qualities of physical substances or entities (dravya). The last 6 (from Buddhi to Prayatna) are the qualities of the Mind and Self (they are considered dravyas). Prayatna (effort) is a quality of Self while the rest of the 5 are the qualities of the mind.

The first 11 qualities mentioned above are well known as physical properties in Physics and Chemistry. Conventionally, every substance is examined for the same physical properties. Quality of counting is fundamental for any material entity. The qualities of being previous and being next are related to Space and time also. Conjunctive and disjunctive interactions are very common in Physics and chemistry wherein two or more entities or substances can be combined to form a new entity or an existing entity can be decomposed into several individual entities.

Prashastapada elaborated further on Gunas and brought in additional Gunas as follows:<ref name=":9" />

# गुरुत्व - Gurutva having weight, heaviness
# द्रवत्व - Dravatva having liquidity or fluidity
# स्नेह - Moisture, softness, viscidity or stickiness
# संस्कार - trait, habit, impression
# धर्म - Dharma or merit
# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit
# शब्द - Sound
Gunas are also elaborated in by Acharya Charaka in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]]

=== Air vs Space ===
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":0" />

=== Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===
Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space. <blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence.

Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":3">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>

इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>

- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Time, space, Atma and mind are the eternal or nitya dravyas and none of them are perceivable by any of the sense organs is a basic definition in Vaiseshika. Although, these four eternal entities can only be conceived by the mind, they are real existent dravyas or entities. Time, space and akasa are incapable of motion and it is only the earth, water, fire and air (the four dravyas) and mind which are capable of motion.<blockquote>
दिक्कालावाकाशं च क्रियावद्वैधर्म्यान्निष्क्रियाणि । वैशेषिक-५,२.२१ ।</blockquote>
Meaning: Space, time, Akasa and Atman (indicated by the word "Cha") are void of action because of their difference from that which possesses activity.<ref name=":3" />

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.

== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as

# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations
# '''Rta or Natural Law''' as the transcendental and unitary principle of all motions (universal and individual)
# '''Yajna''' as the connective dynamic principle and nucleus of all evolution
# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.

These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.

=== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":1">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>

=== Rta ===
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practitioners of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energize the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":1" />

The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest (Potential Energy) changed to kinetic form (Kinetic Energy) and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.'' The term Kinetic Energy relates purely to motion and does not carry other meanings related to rta as in the Vedic context, i.e., rta represents motion charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose.<ref name=":2">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>

Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''.
Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda.

Dharma is science and nothing but science an most certainly not religion in the Vedic context.<ref>Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. (27-31)

<nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":2" />

rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":2" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

=== Yajna ===
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":1" />

=== Ap (Water) ===
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":1" />

=== Panchamahabhutas ===
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":1" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.

== Concept of Motion ==

=== Defining Motion based on Vaiseshika Principles and Prashastapada Bhashyam ===
Prashastapada in कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् prakarana<ref name=":10">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashyam]</ref> defines motion as the change of place of particles and evolves a discussion of its characteristics properties.

एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं क्षणिकत्वं मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् अगुणवत्वं गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् असमवायिकारणत्वं स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं च प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं च विशेषः ।।

These properties may be stated as follows:<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":11" />

# peculiarity of a single motion affecting a single body (at a given time) since its change of place at that moment is one and definite.
# instantaneous change of place (simplest form of motion)
# property of relating to a single body; the action of a composite whole is determined by the action of the constituent parts taken together
# a lack of gunas or qualities
# property of being generated by gravity, fluidity, volitional effort, and conjunctions (samyoga)
# property of being opposed by conjunctions caused by themselves
# property of acting as independent cause of conjunctions and disjunctions
# property of acting as non-inherent cause
# property of initiating effects (by conjunctions and disjunctions) in their own as well as in other substrates
# inability to initiate its own kind
# inability to generate motion in other bodies
# ability to classify into distinct types (of motion) characterized by directions of initial motion (linear, upwards, contraction, spreading etc)

Prashastapada defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunctions and disjunctions i.e., a change of place of particles. He regards motion as instantaneous, distinguishing it from impressed motion, and momentum (vega) which is a persistent tendency (Samskara) and implies a series of motions. Motion of a particle or object is one but from the point of view of the Observer, there may be many motions involved, e.g., a falling leaf driven by wind may have a rotatory or vibratory motion and a vertical downward motion at the same time. Here each particle of the leaf taken separately has only one motion or change of place at the same moment, but from Observer's stance, the particles have a rotatory or vibratory motion in one relation and the leaf as whole has a downward motion in another relation.<ref name=":11" />

=== Cosmic Motion ===
In the discussion about Rta in the earlier section, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":4">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,

=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===
Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":4" />

* ability to act as substratum of qualities/attributes
* being endowed with motion (kriyatattva)
* to provide an inherent or material cause
Parispanda sometimes stands for motion molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (e.g. vibration). All action, operation, work (Kriya, Vyapara) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff.<ref name=":11">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>

=== Karma or Activity in terms of Physical Motion ===
'''Three characteristics of Karma''' or activity defined as per Vaiseshika Sutras are<blockquote>एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.17)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The three characteristics are

# Activity depends on substance
# Activity does not possess any quality inherently. It is substance that possess guṇa and karma.
# Movements cause disjunction (Vibhāga) of a substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (saṃyoga) with a new position. Thus activity brings out conjunction and disjunction.

-In a living organism, karma is initiated from within by Effort (Prayatna).

-In a non-living organism, karma is not initiated from within and needs an external agent to initiate. This is because effort (Prayatna) is a quality of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Ātman]].

'''Kinds of Karma''': Motion in the sense of activity is of five kinds.<blockquote>उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>They are<ref name=":9">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref>

* Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement, upward thrust)
* Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement, downward thrust)
* Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion, pulling towards a point)
* Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension, spreading, transmission)
* Gamana (general movements)

It is interesting to see the definition of general motion distinguished from the other four specific categories of motion. Prashastapada identified many more categories of motion as follows:<blockquote>गमनग्रहणाद्भ्रमण-रेचन-स्पन्दनोर्ध्वज्वलनतिर्यक्पतननमनोन्नमनादयो गमनविशेषाः । (Prashastapada Bhashya<ref name=":10" />)</blockquote>While motion (gamana) can mean, in general, any type of motion, as defined in a given context, Prashastapada has identified some well known additional categories of motion that are universally observable and referred to in later sutras of Vaiseshika:<ref name=":9" />

* भ्रमणम् or circular motion or rotation
* रेचनम् or gushing out or expulsion
* स्पंदनम् is the harmonic motion or beat (as in the case of heart beat or हृदयस्पंदनम्)
* ऊर्ध्वज्वलनम् or upward burning (of flame)
* तिर्यक्पतनम् or falling backwards
* नमनम् or bending forward
* उन्नमनम् rising upward

'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":9" />

* Having existence (सद्)
* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)
* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)
* being the कारणं or cause (of something which is a result or effect)
* being सामान्य or generalized and विशेषवत् or specialized

Prashastapada adds two more properties to the above namely अभिधेयत्व and ज्ञेयत्व i.e., naming (them) and knowing (them). It meaning being identified with a name and also being known.

=== Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth ===
The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>

=== Gravitation ===

=== Vega: Inertia, Momentum and Acceleration ===
A motion has been conceived as a change of place in a particle, instantaneous and incapable of producing another motion. But when motion is caused by impact (abhighata) or impelling push (nodana) it develops a samskara or persistent tendency to motion. This persistent tendency of a moving body to continue its motion has been called vega. That vega is a samkara has been clearly stated by Prashastapada. According to him, samskara is of three types<ref name=":4" />

* vega or momentum
* bhavana or mental impression
* sthitisthapaka or elasticity

The concept of vega closely fits in with the modern concept of momentum. Vaiseshikas accept one and the same samskara lasting till the cessation of motion. Uddyotakara and other writiers of the Nyaya school suppose a series of samskaras, each one generating the one that succeeds it. Nyaya view implies the modern idea of acceleration. The power of samskara diminishes by doing work against the counteracting forces and gradually when it gets exhausted, the moving body comes to rest. Thus Vega corresponds to inertia in some respects and to momentum (impressed motion) in others. It is the nearest approach to Newton's first law of motion.<ref name=":4" />

== Light ==
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.<ref name=":5">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>

* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Prakasha''' refers to the illuminating aspect of consciousness. Prakasha is the light that illuminates our thoughts, feelings, and experiences and allows us to know and understand the world around us.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.<ref name=":5" />

== ऊर्जा तापश्च ॥ Energy and Heat ==
Vedic Physics describes Prakriti as the material cause of the the creation while in modern physics it is called Energy. Affected by the divine touch of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakriti]] the inert unconscious entity is set into motion, i.e., rta, and invariably follows the creative process. Characteristics of Prakriti include having eternal existence and capability of conserving itself in any of the three states of its being namely<ref name=":2" />

* existence
* motion
* and transformation to any form of matter
'''Potential and Kinetic Energy:''' In many Veda mantras, Agni represents the forms of Energy.<ref name=":6">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref> In Yajurveda<blockquote>अग्निरमृतो नि धायि । (Yaju. Veda. 12.24)<ref name=":7">Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>

अग्निरमृतोऽभवद् वयोभिर् । (Yaju. Veda. 12.25)</blockquote>Meaning - Agni (Energy form) is eternal and indestructible. It remains indestructible in the mortal world or jagat, due to its potential energy denoted by the term वयस्।

Earlier it was seen how Rta is understood as Kinetic Energy.

'''Transformation of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> Vedas proclaim that Agni (in the form of Energy) is One; it undergoes transformation and hence various are its names. It has the capability to all activities, hence it is called Visvakarma. Urja or energy takes many forms hence it is called Vishvarupa. <blockquote>यो देवानां नामधा एक एव.. ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda 10.82.3)<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A8 Mandala 10 Sukta 82])</ref>

स्तीर्णा अस्य संहतो विश्वरूपा । (Rig. Veda. 3.1.7)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9.%E0%A5%A7 Mandala 3 Sukta 1])</ref> </blockquote>

'''Omnipresence of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> All [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]] proclaim that Agni imparts the quality of movement or chetana and is all-pervading in every atom of the Dyulok (heavenly), Antariksha (Celestial region) and Earth. Due to this energy, there is movement, existence and transformation in every particle. Hence Agni is said to pervade the heavens and earth with the core activity of causing movement. <blockquote>रोदसी भानुना भात्यन्तः ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.45.4)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AB Mandala 10 Sukta 45])</ref>

विश्वस्य केतुर् भुवनस्य गर्भऽ आ रोदसी ऽ अपृणाज् जायमानः । (Yajurveda. 12.23)<ref name=":7" /> </blockquote>'''Power of Expansion''':<ref name=":6" /> Yajurveda recounts the expansive quality of extreme heat (denoted by the term त्वेषः) energy in Agni, which causes the expansion of the universe/world.

अग्ने ... येनान्तरिक्षम् उर्व् आततन्थ त्वेषः स भानुर् अर्णवो नृचक्षाः ॥ (Yajurveda. 12.48)<ref name=":7" />

'''Forms of Energy''': Yajurveda talks about the "three bodies" or forms of Agni.

# या ते अग्नेऽयःशया तनूः - Ayas (अयस्) here means dhatu or metal; Agni or Energy within the metals. The core of the earth is described as ball of metallic fire. ('''Terrestrial Metallic Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने रजःशया तनूः - Rajas (रजस्) denotes molecules in space and the energy form is indicated by Vidyut or Electricity, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. ('''Atmospheric Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने हरिशया तनूः - The term Hari (हरि) represents Sun and sunrays. The heat energy residing in Sun and the warmth and heat of sun all represent the heat form of energy. ('''Solar Form of Energy''')

== Interesting Vedic knowledge of Surya ==
'''Solar Energy''': Vedic knowledge of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] and its energy is extensive according to Dwivedi.<ref name=":6" /> He provides the textual references to the following aspects

- सप्त आदित्या: Sapta Aditya (सप्त दिशो नानासूर्याः...), '''there are seven suns''' according to Rigveda (9.114.3) and Atharvaveda mentions that the central Surya is Kashyap, while Taittriya Aranyaja (1.7.1) gives the names of these seven suns.

- '''Hydrogen and Helium as the energy source''': सोमेन - आदित्या बलिन: । (Atha. Veda. 14.1.2) Dwivedi refers Soma to Hydrogen from which Sun gains its energy. Yajurveda (9.3)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9])</ref> refers two tattvas or nature of Sun's energy that exist in Surya - सूर्ये सन्तं समाहितम्

# "अपां रसम्" meaning that which is the essence of Ap or water in a gaseous form denoted by the term "उद्वयस्" Udvayas. These in modern terms refer to Hydrogen (split from water) in a gaseous form.
# "अपां रसस्य यो रस:" meaning that which is the essence of the essence of Ap which in modern terms indicates Helium.

- '''Sun spots''': Rigvedic terms (Rig. Veda. 1.164.14) such as चक्षु (मंडल, घेरा) रजस् (धूल, धब्ब) indicate that Surya is associated with spots, a fact identified since early ancient times.

- Sun-rays: The seven horses of Surya represent the seven rays of the sun. <blockquote>अव दिवस्तारयन्ति सप्त सूर्यस्य रश्मयः । आपः समुद्रिया धारास्तास्ते शल्यमसिस्रसन् ॥१॥<ref>Atharva Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Kanda 7 Sukta 112])</ref></blockquote>Many such concepts require further studies and exploration in terms of modern sciences.

== Electricity ==
Different kinds of electricity

• Tadita (तडित) Generated by rubbing silk cloths

• Saudamini (सौदामिनी ) Generated by rubbing two gems

• Vidyut (विद्युत) Generated from thunder

• Shatakumbhi (शतकुंभी) Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)

• Hrdani (हृदनी) Stored electricity with portable properties

• Ashani (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)

=== Construction of Electric Cell ===
It is mentioned by some scholars that Agasthya described how to make an electric battery and separate water into oxygen and hydrogen.<ref name=":5" /><ref>Ali, T., Afrin, D., & Gain, J. (2024). The Contribution of Ancient India to the Advancement of Modern physics: A Comprehensive study. ''International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation'', 245–252. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17613/75bc-9552</nowiki></ref><blockquote>संस्थाप्य मृण्मये पात्रे ताम्रपात्रं सुसंस्कृतम्‌। छादयेच्छिखिग्रीवेन चार्दाभि: काष्ठापांसुभि:॥ </blockquote>A clay pot was covered with a clean copper plate, copper sulfate, and moist sawdust. The cathode, Mitra, and the anode, Varuna, were zinc amalgam sheets placed on top of these layers. To boost electricity, 100 Shata Kumbha jars were linked. As the reaction occurred, water split into Oxygen (pranavayu) and Hydrogen (udanavayu). In an airtight cloth, hydrogen gas was collected for aerodynamic use.

However, the shloka has been unverified at the time of compilation of this article. In the reference<ref>Jha, B. (Ed.). (2009). ''Agastya Samhita''. Mahavir Mandir Prakashan. (p. 30-32)

<nowiki>https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/agastya-samhita-sage-agastya-bhavanath-jha/Agastya%20Samhita%20-%20Sage%20Agastya%20%2C%20Bhavanath%20Jha.pdf</nowiki></ref> of the text '''Agastya samhita, edited by Pt. Bhavanath Jha''', Acharya Kishore Kunal in his preface discussed the topic of Agasthya samhita's association with the usage and preparation of dry battery cell. He brings into context several aspects of scholarly discussions about Varuna, Pranavayu and Udanavayu that throw light on the later day interpolations and wrong attributions of electric batteries to Agastya Samhita. It was shown how Agasthya samhita deals with yoga and higher philosophical contexts and does not contain aspects of Physics. This information he mentions was posted by Chinmay Yuva Kendra in 2006 in a website, under the heading "Ancient Indian Approach to Science" as a part of Chronicles of Hinduism series.

== References ==
[[Category:Physics]]

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

2025-12-02T13:53:56Z

Fordharma: /* Concept of Motion */ adding content

{{ToBeEdited}}

Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":0">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>

== Introduction ==
Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometers per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time.

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.

== Source Texts for Physics in India ==
There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.

# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.
# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.
# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.
# '''Puranas''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>
# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.
# '''Siddhanta granthas''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.
# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.
# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, Mahabharata, Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.
## '''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.
## '''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.
## '''Natyashastra''' - describes various musical instruments and their acoustical characteristics
## '''Agasthya Samhita''' - describes electrical cells

== Padarthas in Vaiseshika Darshana ==
In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides matter, or substance into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":0" />

# Substance (dravya)
# Quality (guna)
# Action (karma)
# Generality (sāmānya)
# Individuality (viśesa)
# Inherence (samavāya)

Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:

* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref name=":8">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* स्पर्शवान् वायुः । वैशेषिक-२,१.४ । Vayu (Air) has touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
*

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===
In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include

# रूप or form/shape/colour
# रस or taste
# गन्ध or smell
# स्पर्श or touch
# संख्या or numbers/counting
# परिमाणानि or various measures such as length, area, volume, weight etc.
# पृथक्त्वं is being distinguished (to be separated)
# संयोग is conjunction or joining (or combination)
# विभाग is disjunction, disjoining or division
# परत्व is being next (spatially next or temporally later or subsequent)
# अपरत्व is being previous (spatially previous or temporally previous or earlier)
# बुद्धयः intellects (several)
# सुख is happiness
# दुःख is sorrow
# इच्छा is desire
# द्वेष is aversion
# प्रयत्नाः relates to efforts

The first 11 (from rupa to aparatva) are the qualities of physical substances or entities (dravya). The last 6 (from Buddhi to Prayatna) are the qualities of the Mind and Self (they are considered dravyas). Prayatna (effort) is a quality of Self while the rest of the 5 are the qualities of the mind.

The first 11 qualities mentioned above are well known as physical properties in Physics and Chemistry. Conventionally, every substance is examined for the same physical properties. Quality of counting is fundamental for any material entity. The qualities of being previous and being next are related to Space and time also. Conjunctive and disjunctive interactions are very common in Physics and chemistry wherein two or more entities or substances can be combined to form a new entity or an existing entity can be decomposed into several individual entities.

Prashastapada elaborated further on Gunas and brought in additional Gunas as follows:<ref name=":9" />

# गुरुत्व - Gurutva having weight, heaviness
# द्रवत्व - Dravatva having liquidity or fluidity
# स्नेह - Moisture, softness, viscidity or stickiness
# संस्कार - trait, habit, impression
# धर्म - Dharma or merit
# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit
# शब्द - Sound
Gunas are also elaborated in by Acharya Charaka in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]]

=== Air vs Space ===
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":0" />

=== Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===
Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space. <blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence.

Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":3">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>

इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>

- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Time, space, Atma and mind are the eternal or nitya dravyas and none of them are perceivable by any of the sense organs is a basic definition in Vaiseshika. Although, these four eternal entities can only be conceived by the mind, they are real existent dravyas or entities. Time, space and akasa are incapable of motion and it is only the earth, water, fire and air (the four dravyas) and mind which are capable of motion.<blockquote>
दिक्कालावाकाशं च क्रियावद्वैधर्म्यान्निष्क्रियाणि । वैशेषिक-५,२.२१ ।</blockquote>
Meaning: Space, time, Akasa and Atman (indicated by the word "Cha") are void of action because of their difference from that which possesses activity.<ref name=":3" />

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.

== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as

# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations
# '''Rta or Natural Law''' as the transcendental and unitary principle of all motions (universal and individual)
# '''Yajna''' as the connective dynamic principle and nucleus of all evolution
# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.

These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.

=== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":1">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>

=== Rta ===
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practitioners of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energize the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":1" />

The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest (Potential Energy) changed to kinetic form (Kinetic Energy) and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.'' The term Kinetic Energy relates purely to motion and does not carry other meanings related to rta as in the Vedic context, i.e., rta represents motion charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose.<ref name=":2">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>

Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''.
Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda.

Dharma is science and nothing but science an most certainly not religion in the Vedic context.<ref>Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. (27-31)

<nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":2" />

rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":2" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

=== Yajna ===
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":1" />

=== Ap (Water) ===
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":1" />

=== Panchamahabhutas ===
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":1" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.

== Concept of Motion ==

=== Vaiseshika Principles and Prashastapada Bhashyam ===
Prashastapada in कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् prakarana<ref name=":10">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashyam]</ref> defines motion as the change of place of particles and evolves a discussion of its characteristics properties.

एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं क्षणिकत्वं मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् अगुणवत्वं गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् असमवायिकारणत्वं स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं च प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं च विशेषः ।।

These properties may be stated as follows:<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":11" />

# peculiarity of a single motion affecting a single body (at a given time) since its change of place at that moment is one and definite.
# instantaneous change of place (simplest form of motion)
# property of relating to a single body; the action of a composite whole is determined by the action of the constituent parts taken together
# a lack of gunas or qualities
# property of being generated by gravity, fluidity, volitional effort, and conjunctions (samyoga)
# property of being opposed by conjunctions caused by themselves
# property of acting as independent cause of conjunctions and disjunctions
# property of acting as non-inherent cause
# property of initiating effects (by conjunctions and disjunctions) in their own as well as in other substrates
# inability to initiate its own kind
# inability to generate motion in other bodies
# ability to classify into distinct types (of motion) characterized by directions of initial motion (linear, upwards, contraction, spreading etc)

Prashastapada defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunctions and disjunctions i.e., a change of place of particles. He regards motion as instantaneous, distinguishing it from impressed motion, and momentum (vega) which is a persistent tendency (Samskara) and implies a series of motions. Motion of a particle or object is one but from the point of view of the Observer, there may be many motions involved, e.g., a falling leaf driven by wind may have a rotatory or vibratory motion and a vertical downward motion at the same time. Here each particle of the leaf taken separately has only one motion or change of place at the same moment, but from Observer's stance, the particles have a rotatory or vibratory motion in one relation and the leaf as whole has a downward motion in another relation.

=== Cosmic Motion ===
In the discussion about Rta in the earlier section, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":4">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,

=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===
Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":4" />

* ability to act as substratum of qualities/attributes
* being endowed with motion (kriyatattva)
* to provide an inherent or material cause
Parispanda sometimes stands for motion molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (e.g. vibration). All action, operation, work (Kriya, Vyapara) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff.<ref name=":11">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>

=== Karma or Activity in terms of Physical Motion ===
'''Three characteristics of Karma''' or activity defined as per Vaiseshika Sutras are<blockquote>एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.17)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The three characteristics are

# Activity depends on substance
# Activity does not possess any quality inherently. It is substance that possess guṇa and karma.
# Movements cause disjunction (Vibhāga) of a substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (saṃyoga) with a new position. Thus activity brings out conjunction and disjunction.

-In a living organism, karma is initiated from within by Effort (Prayatna).

-In a non-living organism, karma is not initiated from within and needs an external agent to initiate. This is because effort (Prayatna) is a quality of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Ātman]].

'''Kinds of Karma''': Motion in the sense of activity is of five kinds.<blockquote>उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>They are<ref name=":9">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref>

* Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement, upward thrust)
* Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement, downward thrust)
* Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion, pulling towards a point)
* Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension, spreading, transmission)
* Gamana (general movements)

It is interesting to see the definition of general motion distinguished from the other four specific categories of motion. Prashastapada identified many more categories of motion as follows:<blockquote>गमनग्रहणाद्भ्रमण-रेचन-स्पन्दनोर्ध्वज्वलनतिर्यक्पतननमनोन्नमनादयो गमनविशेषाः । (Prashastapada Bhashya<ref name=":10" />)</blockquote>While motion (gamana) can mean, in general, any type of motion, as defined in a given context, Prashastapada has identified some well known additional categories of motion that are universally observable and referred to in later sutras of Vaiseshika:<ref name=":9" />

* भ्रमणम् or circular motion or rotation
* रेचनम् or gushing out or expulsion
* स्पंदनम् is the harmonic motion or beat (as in the case of heart beat or हृदयस्पंदनम्)
* ऊर्ध्वज्वलनम् or upward burning (of flame)
* तिर्यक्पतनम् or falling backwards
* नमनम् or bending forward
* उन्नमनम् rising upward

'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":9" />

* Having existence (सद्)
* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)
* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)
* being the कारणं or cause (of something which is a result or effect)
* being सामान्य or generalized and विशेषवत् or specialized

Prashastapada adds two more properties to the above namely अभिधेयत्व and ज्ञेयत्व i.e., naming (them) and knowing (them). It meaning being identified with a name and also being known.

=== Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth ===
The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>

=== Gravitation ===

=== Vega or Momentum ===
A motion has been conceived as a change of place in a particle, instantaneous and incapable of producing another motion. But when motion is caused by impact (abhighata) or impelling push (nodana) it develops a smaksra or persistent tendency to motion. This persistent tendency of a moving body to continue its motion has been called vega. That vega is a samkara has been clearly stated by Prashastapada. According to him, samskara is of three types

- vega or momentum

- bhavana or mental impression

- sthitisthapaka or elasticity

== Light ==
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.<ref name=":5">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>

* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Prakasha''' refers to the illuminating aspect of consciousness. Prakasha is the light that illuminates our thoughts, feelings, and experiences and allows us to know and understand the world around us.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.<ref name=":5" />

== ऊर्जा तापश्च ॥ Energy and Heat ==
Vedic Physics describes Prakriti as the material cause of the the creation while in modern physics it is called Energy. Affected by the divine touch of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakriti]] the inert unconscious entity is set into motion, i.e., rta, and invariably follows the creative process. Characteristics of Prakriti include having eternal existence and capability of conserving itself in any of the three states of its being namely<ref name=":2" />

* existence
* motion
* and transformation to any form of matter
'''Potential and Kinetic Energy:''' In many Veda mantras, Agni represents the forms of Energy.<ref name=":6">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref> In Yajurveda<blockquote>अग्निरमृतो नि धायि । (Yaju. Veda. 12.24)<ref name=":7">Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>

अग्निरमृतोऽभवद् वयोभिर् । (Yaju. Veda. 12.25)</blockquote>Meaning - Agni (Energy form) is eternal and indestructible. It remains indestructible in the mortal world or jagat, due to its potential energy denoted by the term वयस्।

Earlier it was seen how Rta is understood as Kinetic Energy.

'''Transformation of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> Vedas proclaim that Agni (in the form of Energy) is One; it undergoes transformation and hence various are its names. It has the capability to all activities, hence it is called Visvakarma. Urja or energy takes many forms hence it is called Vishvarupa. <blockquote>यो देवानां नामधा एक एव.. ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda 10.82.3)<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A8 Mandala 10 Sukta 82])</ref>

स्तीर्णा अस्य संहतो विश्वरूपा । (Rig. Veda. 3.1.7)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9.%E0%A5%A7 Mandala 3 Sukta 1])</ref> </blockquote>

'''Omnipresence of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> All [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]] proclaim that Agni imparts the quality of movement or chetana and is all-pervading in every atom of the Dyulok (heavenly), Antariksha (Celestial region) and Earth. Due to this energy, there is movement, existence and transformation in every particle. Hence Agni is said to pervade the heavens and earth with the core activity of causing movement. <blockquote>रोदसी भानुना भात्यन्तः ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.45.4)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AB Mandala 10 Sukta 45])</ref>

विश्वस्य केतुर् भुवनस्य गर्भऽ आ रोदसी ऽ अपृणाज् जायमानः । (Yajurveda. 12.23)<ref name=":7" /> </blockquote>'''Power of Expansion''':<ref name=":6" /> Yajurveda recounts the expansive quality of extreme heat (denoted by the term त्वेषः) energy in Agni, which causes the expansion of the universe/world.

अग्ने ... येनान्तरिक्षम् उर्व् आततन्थ त्वेषः स भानुर् अर्णवो नृचक्षाः ॥ (Yajurveda. 12.48)<ref name=":7" />

'''Forms of Energy''': Yajurveda talks about the "three bodies" or forms of Agni.

# या ते अग्नेऽयःशया तनूः - Ayas (अयस्) here means dhatu or metal; Agni or Energy within the metals. The core of the earth is described as ball of metallic fire. ('''Terrestrial Metallic Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने रजःशया तनूः - Rajas (रजस्) denotes molecules in space and the energy form is indicated by Vidyut or Electricity, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. ('''Atmospheric Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने हरिशया तनूः - The term Hari (हरि) represents Sun and sunrays. The heat energy residing in Sun and the warmth and heat of sun all represent the heat form of energy. ('''Solar Form of Energy''')

== Interesting Vedic knowledge of Surya ==
'''Solar Energy''': Vedic knowledge of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] and its energy is extensive according to Dwivedi.<ref name=":6" /> He provides the textual references to the following aspects

- सप्त आदित्या: Sapta Aditya (सप्त दिशो नानासूर्याः...), '''there are seven suns''' according to Rigveda (9.114.3) and Atharvaveda mentions that the central Surya is Kashyap, while Taittriya Aranyaja (1.7.1) gives the names of these seven suns.

- '''Hydrogen and Helium as the energy source''': सोमेन - आदित्या बलिन: । (Atha. Veda. 14.1.2) Dwivedi refers Soma to Hydrogen from which Sun gains its energy. Yajurveda (9.3)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9])</ref> refers two tattvas or nature of Sun's energy that exist in Surya - सूर्ये सन्तं समाहितम्

# "अपां रसम्" meaning that which is the essence of Ap or water in a gaseous form denoted by the term "उद्वयस्" Udvayas. These in modern terms refer to Hydrogen (split from water) in a gaseous form.
# "अपां रसस्य यो रस:" meaning that which is the essence of the essence of Ap which in modern terms indicates Helium.

- '''Sun spots''': Rigvedic terms (Rig. Veda. 1.164.14) such as चक्षु (मंडल, घेरा) रजस् (धूल, धब्ब) indicate that Surya is associated with spots, a fact identified since early ancient times.

- Sun-rays: The seven horses of Surya represent the seven rays of the sun. <blockquote>अव दिवस्तारयन्ति सप्त सूर्यस्य रश्मयः । आपः समुद्रिया धारास्तास्ते शल्यमसिस्रसन् ॥१॥<ref>Atharva Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Kanda 7 Sukta 112])</ref></blockquote>Many such concepts require further studies and exploration in terms of modern sciences.

== Electricity ==
Different kinds of electricity

• Tadita (तडित) Generated by rubbing silk cloths

• Saudamini (सौदामिनी ) Generated by rubbing two gems

• Vidyut (विद्युत) Generated from thunder

• Shatakumbhi (शतकुंभी) Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)

• Hrdani (हृदनी) Stored electricity with portable properties

• Ashani (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)

=== Construction of Electric Cell ===
It is mentioned by some scholars that Agasthya described how to make an electric battery and separate water into oxygen and hydrogen.<ref name=":5" /><ref>Ali, T., Afrin, D., & Gain, J. (2024). The Contribution of Ancient India to the Advancement of Modern physics: A Comprehensive study. ''International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation'', 245–252. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17613/75bc-9552</nowiki></ref><blockquote>संस्थाप्य मृण्मये पात्रे ताम्रपात्रं सुसंस्कृतम्‌। छादयेच्छिखिग्रीवेन चार्दाभि: काष्ठापांसुभि:॥ </blockquote>A clay pot was covered with a clean copper plate, copper sulfate, and moist sawdust. The cathode, Mitra, and the anode, Varuna, were zinc amalgam sheets placed on top of these layers. To boost electricity, 100 Shata Kumbha jars were linked. As the reaction occurred, water split into Oxygen (pranavayu) and Hydrogen (udanavayu). In an airtight cloth, hydrogen gas was collected for aerodynamic use.

However, the shloka has been unverified at the time of compilation of this article. In the reference<ref>Jha, B. (Ed.). (2009). ''Agastya Samhita''. Mahavir Mandir Prakashan. (p. 30-32)

<nowiki>https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/agastya-samhita-sage-agastya-bhavanath-jha/Agastya%20Samhita%20-%20Sage%20Agastya%20%2C%20Bhavanath%20Jha.pdf</nowiki></ref> of the text '''Agastya samhita, edited by Pt. Bhavanath Jha''', Acharya Kishore Kunal in his preface discussed the topic of Agasthya samhita's association with the usage and preparation of dry battery cell. He brings into context several aspects of scholarly discussions about Varuna, Pranavayu and Udanavayu that throw light on the later day interpolations and wrong attributions of electric batteries to Agastya Samhita. It was shown how Agasthya samhita deals with yoga and higher philosophical contexts and does not contain aspects of Physics. This information he mentions was posted by Chinmay Yuva Kendra in 2006 in a website, under the heading "Ancient Indian Approach to Science" as a part of Chronicles of Hinduism series.

== References ==
[[Category:Physics]]

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

2025-12-02T11:30:20Z

Fordharma: /* Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth */

{{ToBeEdited}}

Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":0">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>

== Introduction ==
Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometers per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time.

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.

== Source Texts for Physics in India ==
There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.

# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.
# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.
# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.
# '''Puranas''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>
# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.
# '''Siddhanta granthas''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.
# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.
# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, Mahabharata, Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.
## '''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.
## '''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.
## '''Natyashastra''' - describes various musical instruments and their acoustical characteristics
## '''Agasthya Samhita''' - describes electrical cells

== Padarthas in Vaiseshika Darshana ==
In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides matter, or substance into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":0" />

# Substance (dravya)
# Quality (guna)
# Action (karma)
# Generality (sāmānya)
# Individuality (viśesa)
# Inherence (samavāya)

Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:

* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref name=":8">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* स्पर्शवान् वायुः । वैशेषिक-२,१.४ । Vayu (Air) has touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
*

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===
In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include

# रूप or form/shape/colour
# रस or taste
# गन्ध or smell
# स्पर्श or touch
# संख्या or numbers/counting
# परिमाणानि or various measures such as length, area, volume, weight etc.
# पृथक्त्वं is being distinguished (to be separated)
# संयोग is conjunction or joining (or combination)
# विभाग is disjunction, disjoining or division
# परत्व is being next (spatially next or temporally later or subsequent)
# अपरत्व is being previous (spatially previous or temporally previous or earlier)
# बुद्धयः intellects (several)
# सुख is happiness
# दुःख is sorrow
# इच्छा is desire
# द्वेष is aversion
# प्रयत्नाः relates to efforts

The first 11 (from rupa to aparatva) are the qualities of physical substances or entities (dravya). The last 6 (from Buddhi to Prayatna) are the qualities of the Mind and Self (they are considered dravyas). Prayatna (effort) is a quality of Self while the rest of the 5 are the qualities of the mind.

The first 11 qualities mentioned above are well known as physical properties in Physics and Chemistry. Conventionally, every substance is examined for the same physical properties. Quality of counting is fundamental for any material entity. The qualities of being previous and being next are related to Space and time also. Conjunctive and disjunctive interactions are very common in Physics and chemistry wherein two or more entities or substances can be combined to form a new entity or an existing entity can be decomposed into several individual entities.

Prashastapada elaborated further on Gunas and brought in additional Gunas as follows:<ref name=":9" />

# गुरुत्व - Gurutva having weight, heaviness
# द्रवत्व - Dravatva having liquidity or fluidity
# स्नेह - Moisture, softness, viscidity or stickiness
# संस्कार - trait, habit, impression
# धर्म - Dharma or merit
# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit
# शब्द - Sound
Gunas are also elaborated in by Acharya Charaka in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]]

=== Air vs Space ===
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":0" />

=== Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===
Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space. <blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence.

Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":3">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>

इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>

- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Time, space, Atma and mind are the eternal or nitya dravyas and none of them are perceivable by any of the sense organs is a basic definition in Vaiseshika. Although, these four eternal entities can only be conceived by the mind, they are real existent dravyas or entities. Time, space and akasa are incapable of motion and it is only the earth, water, fire and air (the four dravyas) and mind which are capable of motion.<blockquote>
दिक्कालावाकाशं च क्रियावद्वैधर्म्यान्निष्क्रियाणि । वैशेषिक-५,२.२१ ।</blockquote>
Meaning: Space, time, Akasa and Atman (indicated by the word "Cha") are void of action because of their difference from that which possesses activity.<ref name=":3" />

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.

== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as

# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations
# '''Rta or Natural Law''' as the transcendental and unitary principle of all motions (universal and individual)
# '''Yajna''' as the connective dynamic principle and nucleus of all evolution
# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.

These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.

=== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":1">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>

=== Rta ===
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practitioners of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energize the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":1" />

The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest (Potential Energy) changed to kinetic form (Kinetic Energy) and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.'' The term Kinetic Energy relates purely to motion and does not carry other meanings related to rta as in the Vedic context, i.e., rta represents motion charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose.<ref name=":2">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>

Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''.
Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda.

Dharma is science and nothing but science an most certainly not religion in the Vedic context.<ref>Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. (27-31)

<nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":2" />

rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":2" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

=== Yajna ===
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":1" />

=== Ap (Water) ===
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":1" />

=== Panchamahabhutas ===
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":1" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.

== Concept of Motion ==

=== Cosmic Motion ===
In the discussion about Rta, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":4">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,

=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===
Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":4" />

* ability to act as substratum of qualities/attributes
* being endowed with motion (kriyatattva)
* to provide an inherent or material cause
Parispanda sometimes stands for motion molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (e.g. vibration). All action, operation, work (Kriya, Vyapara) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff.<ref>Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>

=== Karma or Activity in terms of Physical Motion ===
'''Three characteristics of Karma''' or activity defined as per Vaiseshika Sutras are<blockquote>एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.17)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The three characteristics are

# Activity depends on substance
# Activity does not possess any quality inherently. It is substance that possess guṇa and karma.
# Movements cause disjunction (Vibhāga) of a substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (saṃyoga) with a new position. Thus activity brings out conjunction and disjunction.

-In a living organism, karma is initiated from within by Effort (Prayatna).

-In a non-living organism, karma is not initiated from within and needs an external agent to initiate. This is because effort (Prayatna) is a quality of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Ātman]].

'''Kinds of Karma''': Motion in the sense of activity is of five kinds.<blockquote>उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>They are<ref name=":9">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref>

* Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement, upward thrust)
* Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement, downward thrust)
* Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion, pulling towards a point)
* Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension, spreading, transmission)
* Gamana (general movements)

It is interesting to see the definition of general motion distinguished from the other four specific categories of motion. Prashastapada identified many more categories of motion as follows:<blockquote>गमनग्रहणाद्भ्रमण-रेचन-स्पन्दनोर्ध्वज्वलनतिर्यक्पतननमनोन्नमनादयो गमनविशेषाः । ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashya])</blockquote>While motion (gamana) can mean, in general, any type of motion, as defined in a given context, Prashastapada has identified some well known additional categories of motion that are universally observable and referred to in later sutras of Vaiseshika:<ref name=":9" />

* भ्रमणम् or circular motion or rotation
* रेचनम् or gushing out or expulsion
* स्पंदनम् is the harmonic motion or beat (as in the case of heart beat or हृदयस्पंदनम्)
* ऊर्ध्वज्वलनम् or upward burning (of flame)
* तिर्यक्पतनम् or falling backwards
* नमनम् or bending forward
* उन्नमनम् rising upward

'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":9" />

* Having existence (सद्)
* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)
* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)
* being the कारणं or cause (of something which is a result or effect)
* being सामान्य or generalized and विशेषवत् or specialized

Prashastapada adds two more properties to the above namely अभिधेयत्व and ज्ञेयत्व i.e., naming (them) and knowing (them). It meaning being identified with a name and also being known.

=== Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth ===
The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>

=== Gravitation ===

== Light ==
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.<ref name=":5">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>

* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Prakasha''' refers to the illuminating aspect of consciousness. Prakasha is the light that illuminates our thoughts, feelings, and experiences and allows us to know and understand the world around us.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.<ref name=":5" />

== ऊर्जा तापश्च ॥ Energy and Heat ==
Vedic Physics describes Prakriti as the material cause of the the creation while in modern physics it is called Energy. Affected by the divine touch of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakriti]] the inert unconscious entity is set into motion, i.e., rta, and invariably follows the creative process. Characteristics of Prakriti include having eternal existence and capability of conserving itself in any of the three states of its being namely<ref name=":2" />

* existence
* motion
* and transformation to any form of matter
'''Potential and Kinetic Energy:''' In many Veda mantras, Agni represents the forms of Energy.<ref name=":6">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref> In Yajurveda<blockquote>अग्निरमृतो नि धायि । (Yaju. Veda. 12.24)<ref name=":7">Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>

अग्निरमृतोऽभवद् वयोभिर् । (Yaju. Veda. 12.25)</blockquote>Meaning - Agni (Energy form) is eternal and indestructible. It remains indestructible in the mortal world or jagat, due to its potential energy denoted by the term वयस्।

Earlier it was seen how Rta is understood as Kinetic Energy.

'''Transformation of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> Vedas proclaim that Agni (in the form of Energy) is One; it undergoes transformation and hence various are its names. It has the capability to all activities, hence it is called Visvakarma. Urja or energy takes many forms hence it is called Vishvarupa. <blockquote>यो देवानां नामधा एक एव.. ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda 10.82.3)<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A8 Mandala 10 Sukta 82])</ref>

स्तीर्णा अस्य संहतो विश्वरूपा । (Rig. Veda. 3.1.7)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9.%E0%A5%A7 Mandala 3 Sukta 1])</ref> </blockquote>

'''Omnipresence of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> All [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]] proclaim that Agni imparts the quality of movement or chetana and is all-pervading in every atom of the Dyulok (heavenly), Antariksha (Celestial region) and Earth. Due to this energy, there is movement, existence and transformation in every particle. Hence Agni is said to pervade the heavens and earth with the core activity of causing movement. <blockquote>रोदसी भानुना भात्यन्तः ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.45.4)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AB Mandala 10 Sukta 45])</ref>

विश्वस्य केतुर् भुवनस्य गर्भऽ आ रोदसी ऽ अपृणाज् जायमानः । (Yajurveda. 12.23)<ref name=":7" /> </blockquote>'''Power of Expansion''':<ref name=":6" /> Yajurveda recounts the expansive quality of extreme heat (denoted by the term त्वेषः) energy in Agni, which causes the expansion of the universe/world.

अग्ने ... येनान्तरिक्षम् उर्व् आततन्थ त्वेषः स भानुर् अर्णवो नृचक्षाः ॥ (Yajurveda. 12.48)<ref name=":7" />

'''Forms of Energy''': Yajurveda talks about the "three bodies" or forms of Agni.

# या ते अग्नेऽयःशया तनूः - Ayas (अयस्) here means dhatu or metal; Agni or Energy within the metals. The core of the earth is described as ball of metallic fire. ('''Terrestrial Metallic Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने रजःशया तनूः - Rajas (रजस्) denotes molecules in space and the energy form is indicated by Vidyut or Electricity, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. ('''Atmospheric Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने हरिशया तनूः - The term Hari (हरि) represents Sun and sunrays. The heat energy residing in Sun and the warmth and heat of sun all represent the heat form of energy. ('''Solar Form of Energy''')

== Interesting Vedic knowledge of Surya ==
'''Solar Energy''': Vedic knowledge of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] and its energy is extensive according to Dwivedi.<ref name=":6" /> He provides the textual references to the following aspects

- सप्त आदित्या: Sapta Aditya (सप्त दिशो नानासूर्याः...), '''there are seven suns''' according to Rigveda (9.114.3) and Atharvaveda mentions that the central Surya is Kashyap, while Taittriya Aranyaja (1.7.1) gives the names of these seven suns.

- '''Hydrogen and Helium as the energy source''': सोमेन - आदित्या बलिन: । (Atha. Veda. 14.1.2) Dwivedi refers Soma to Hydrogen from which Sun gains its energy. Yajurveda (9.3)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9])</ref> refers two tattvas or nature of Sun's energy that exist in Surya - सूर्ये सन्तं समाहितम्

# "अपां रसम्" meaning that which is the essence of Ap or water in a gaseous form denoted by the term "उद्वयस्" Udvayas. These in modern terms refer to Hydrogen (split from water) in a gaseous form.
# "अपां रसस्य यो रस:" meaning that which is the essence of the essence of Ap which in modern terms indicates Helium.

- '''Sun spots''': Rigvedic terms (Rig. Veda. 1.164.14) such as चक्षु (मंडल, घेरा) रजस् (धूल, धब्ब) indicate that Surya is associated with spots, a fact identified since early ancient times.

- Sun-rays: The seven horses of Surya represent the seven rays of the sun. <blockquote>अव दिवस्तारयन्ति सप्त सूर्यस्य रश्मयः । आपः समुद्रिया धारास्तास्ते शल्यमसिस्रसन् ॥१॥<ref>Atharva Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Kanda 7 Sukta 112])</ref></blockquote>Many such concepts require further studies and exploration in terms of modern sciences.

== Electricity ==
Different kinds of electricity

• Tadita (तडित) Generated by rubbing silk cloths

• Saudamini (सौदामिनी ) Generated by rubbing two gems

• Vidyut (विद्युत) Generated from thunder

• Shatakumbhi (शतकुंभी) Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)

• Hrdani (हृदनी) Stored electricity with portable properties

• Ashani (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)

=== Construction of Electric Cell ===
It is mentioned by some scholars that Agasthya described how to make an electric battery and separate water into oxygen and hydrogen.<ref name=":5" /><ref>Ali, T., Afrin, D., & Gain, J. (2024). The Contribution of Ancient India to the Advancement of Modern physics: A Comprehensive study. ''International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation'', 245–252. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17613/75bc-9552</nowiki></ref><blockquote>संस्थाप्य मृण्मये पात्रे ताम्रपात्रं सुसंस्कृतम्‌। छादयेच्छिखिग्रीवेन चार्दाभि: काष्ठापांसुभि:॥ </blockquote>A clay pot was covered with a clean copper plate, copper sulfate, and moist sawdust. The cathode, Mitra, and the anode, Varuna, were zinc amalgam sheets placed on top of these layers. To boost electricity, 100 Shata Kumbha jars were linked. As the reaction occurred, water split into Oxygen (pranavayu) and Hydrogen (udanavayu). In an airtight cloth, hydrogen gas was collected for aerodynamic use.

However, the shloka has been unverified at the time of compilation of this article. In the reference<ref>Jha, B. (Ed.). (2009). ''Agastya Samhita''. Mahavir Mandir Prakashan. (p. 30-32)

<nowiki>https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/agastya-samhita-sage-agastya-bhavanath-jha/Agastya%20Samhita%20-%20Sage%20Agastya%20%2C%20Bhavanath%20Jha.pdf</nowiki></ref> of the text '''Agastya samhita, edited by Pt. Bhavanath Jha''', Acharya Kishore Kunal in his preface discussed the topic of Agasthya samhita's association with the usage and preparation of dry battery cell. He brings into context several aspects of scholarly discussions about Varuna, Pranavayu and Udanavayu that throw light on the later day interpolations and wrong attributions of electric batteries to Agastya Samhita. It was shown how Agasthya samhita deals with yoga and higher philosophical contexts and does not contain aspects of Physics. This information he mentions was posted by Chinmay Yuva Kendra in 2006 in a website, under the heading "Ancient Indian Approach to Science" as a part of Chronicles of Hinduism series.

== References ==
[[Category:Physics]]

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

2025-12-02T11:25:37Z

Fordharma: /* Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects */

{{ToBeEdited}}

Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":0">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>

== Introduction ==
Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometers per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time.

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.

== Source Texts for Physics in India ==
There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.

# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.
# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.
# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.
# '''Puranas''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>
# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.
# '''Siddhanta granthas''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.
# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.
# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, Mahabharata, Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.
## '''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.
## '''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.
## '''Natyashastra''' - describes various musical instruments and their acoustical characteristics
## '''Agasthya Samhita''' - describes electrical cells

== Padarthas in Vaiseshika Darshana ==
In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides matter, or substance into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":0" />

# Substance (dravya)
# Quality (guna)
# Action (karma)
# Generality (sāmānya)
# Individuality (viśesa)
# Inherence (samavāya)

Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:

* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref name=":8">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* स्पर्शवान् वायुः । वैशेषिक-२,१.४ । Vayu (Air) has touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
*

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===
In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include

# रूप or form/shape/colour
# रस or taste
# गन्ध or smell
# स्पर्श or touch
# संख्या or numbers/counting
# परिमाणानि or various measures such as length, area, volume, weight etc.
# पृथक्त्वं is being distinguished (to be separated)
# संयोग is conjunction or joining (or combination)
# विभाग is disjunction, disjoining or division
# परत्व is being next (spatially next or temporally later or subsequent)
# अपरत्व is being previous (spatially previous or temporally previous or earlier)
# बुद्धयः intellects (several)
# सुख is happiness
# दुःख is sorrow
# इच्छा is desire
# द्वेष is aversion
# प्रयत्नाः relates to efforts

The first 11 (from rupa to aparatva) are the qualities of physical substances or entities (dravya). The last 6 (from Buddhi to Prayatna) are the qualities of the Mind and Self (they are considered dravyas). Prayatna (effort) is a quality of Self while the rest of the 5 are the qualities of the mind.

The first 11 qualities mentioned above are well known as physical properties in Physics and Chemistry. Conventionally, every substance is examined for the same physical properties. Quality of counting is fundamental for any material entity. The qualities of being previous and being next are related to Space and time also. Conjunctive and disjunctive interactions are very common in Physics and chemistry wherein two or more entities or substances can be combined to form a new entity or an existing entity can be decomposed into several individual entities.

Prashastapada elaborated further on Gunas and brought in additional Gunas as follows:<ref name=":9" />

# गुरुत्व - Gurutva having weight, heaviness
# द्रवत्व - Dravatva having liquidity or fluidity
# स्नेह - Moisture, softness, viscidity or stickiness
# संस्कार - trait, habit, impression
# धर्म - Dharma or merit
# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit
# शब्द - Sound
Gunas are also elaborated in by Acharya Charaka in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]]

=== Air vs Space ===
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":0" />

=== Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===
Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space. <blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence.

Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":3">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>

इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>

- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Time, space, Atma and mind are the eternal or nitya dravyas and none of them are perceivable by any of the sense organs is a basic definition in Vaiseshika. Although, these four eternal entities can only be conceived by the mind, they are real existent dravyas or entities. Time, space and akasa are incapable of motion and it is only the earth, water, fire and air (the four dravyas) and mind which are capable of motion.<blockquote>
दिक्कालावाकाशं च क्रियावद्वैधर्म्यान्निष्क्रियाणि । वैशेषिक-५,२.२१ ।</blockquote>
Meaning: Space, time, Akasa and Atman (indicated by the word "Cha") are void of action because of their difference from that which possesses activity.<ref name=":3" />

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.

== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as

# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations
# '''Rta or Natural Law''' as the transcendental and unitary principle of all motions (universal and individual)
# '''Yajna''' as the connective dynamic principle and nucleus of all evolution
# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.

These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.

=== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":1">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>

=== Rta ===
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practitioners of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energize the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":1" />

The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest (Potential Energy) changed to kinetic form (Kinetic Energy) and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.'' The term Kinetic Energy relates purely to motion and does not carry other meanings related to rta as in the Vedic context, i.e., rta represents motion charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose.<ref name=":2">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>

Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''.
Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda.

Dharma is science and nothing but science an most certainly not religion in the Vedic context.<ref>Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. (27-31)

<nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":2" />

rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":2" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

=== Yajna ===
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":1" />

=== Ap (Water) ===
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":1" />

=== Panchamahabhutas ===
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":1" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.

== Concept of Motion ==

=== Cosmic Motion ===
In the discussion about Rta, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":4">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,

=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===
Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":4" />

* ability to act as substratum of qualities/attributes
* being endowed with motion (kriyatattva)
* to provide an inherent or material cause
Parispanda sometimes stands for motion molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (e.g. vibration). All action, operation, work (Kriya, Vyapara) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff.<ref>Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>

=== Karma or Activity in terms of Physical Motion ===
'''Three characteristics of Karma''' or activity defined as per Vaiseshika Sutras are<blockquote>एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.17)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The three characteristics are

# Activity depends on substance
# Activity does not possess any quality inherently. It is substance that possess guṇa and karma.
# Movements cause disjunction (Vibhāga) of a substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (saṃyoga) with a new position. Thus activity brings out conjunction and disjunction.

-In a living organism, karma is initiated from within by Effort (Prayatna).

-In a non-living organism, karma is not initiated from within and needs an external agent to initiate. This is because effort (Prayatna) is a quality of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Ātman]].

'''Kinds of Karma''': Motion in the sense of activity is of five kinds.<blockquote>उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>They are<ref name=":9">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref>

* Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement, upward thrust)
* Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement, downward thrust)
* Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion, pulling towards a point)
* Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension, spreading, transmission)
* Gamana (general movements)

It is interesting to see the definition of general motion distinguished from the other four specific categories of motion. Prashastapada identified many more categories of motion as follows:<blockquote>गमनग्रहणाद्भ्रमण-रेचन-स्पन्दनोर्ध्वज्वलनतिर्यक्पतननमनोन्नमनादयो गमनविशेषाः । ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashya])</blockquote>While motion (gamana) can mean, in general, any type of motion, as defined in a given context, Prashastapada has identified some well known additional categories of motion that are universally observable and referred to in later sutras of Vaiseshika:<ref name=":9" />

* भ्रमणम् or circular motion or rotation
* रेचनम् or gushing out or expulsion
* स्पंदनम् is the harmonic motion or beat (as in the case of heart beat or हृदयस्पंदनम्)
* ऊर्ध्वज्वलनम् or upward burning (of flame)
* तिर्यक्पतनम् or falling backwards
* नमनम् or bending forward
* उन्नमनम् rising upward

'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":9" />

* Having existence (सद्)
* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)
* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)
* being the कारणं or cause (of something which is a result or effect)
* being सामान्य or generalized and विशेषवत् or specialized

Prashastapada adds two more properties to the above namely अभिधेयत्व and ज्ञेयत्व i.e., naming (them) and knowing (them). It meaning being identified with a name and also being known.

=== Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth ===
The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>

== Light ==
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.<ref name=":5">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>

* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Prakasha''' refers to the illuminating aspect of consciousness. Prakasha is the light that illuminates our thoughts, feelings, and experiences and allows us to know and understand the world around us.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.<ref name=":5" />

== ऊर्जा तापश्च ॥ Energy and Heat ==
Vedic Physics describes Prakriti as the material cause of the the creation while in modern physics it is called Energy. Affected by the divine touch of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakriti]] the inert unconscious entity is set into motion, i.e., rta, and invariably follows the creative process. Characteristics of Prakriti include having eternal existence and capability of conserving itself in any of the three states of its being namely<ref name=":2" />

* existence
* motion
* and transformation to any form of matter
'''Potential and Kinetic Energy:''' In many Veda mantras, Agni represents the forms of Energy.<ref name=":6">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref> In Yajurveda<blockquote>अग्निरमृतो नि धायि । (Yaju. Veda. 12.24)<ref name=":7">Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>

अग्निरमृतोऽभवद् वयोभिर् । (Yaju. Veda. 12.25)</blockquote>Meaning - Agni (Energy form) is eternal and indestructible. It remains indestructible in the mortal world or jagat, due to its potential energy denoted by the term वयस्।

Earlier it was seen how Rta is understood as Kinetic Energy.

'''Transformation of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> Vedas proclaim that Agni (in the form of Energy) is One; it undergoes transformation and hence various are its names. It has the capability to all activities, hence it is called Visvakarma. Urja or energy takes many forms hence it is called Vishvarupa. <blockquote>यो देवानां नामधा एक एव.. ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda 10.82.3)<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A8 Mandala 10 Sukta 82])</ref>

स्तीर्णा अस्य संहतो विश्वरूपा । (Rig. Veda. 3.1.7)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9.%E0%A5%A7 Mandala 3 Sukta 1])</ref> </blockquote>

'''Omnipresence of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> All [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]] proclaim that Agni imparts the quality of movement or chetana and is all-pervading in every atom of the Dyulok (heavenly), Antariksha (Celestial region) and Earth. Due to this energy, there is movement, existence and transformation in every particle. Hence Agni is said to pervade the heavens and earth with the core activity of causing movement. <blockquote>रोदसी भानुना भात्यन्तः ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.45.4)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AB Mandala 10 Sukta 45])</ref>

विश्वस्य केतुर् भुवनस्य गर्भऽ आ रोदसी ऽ अपृणाज् जायमानः । (Yajurveda. 12.23)<ref name=":7" /> </blockquote>'''Power of Expansion''':<ref name=":6" /> Yajurveda recounts the expansive quality of extreme heat (denoted by the term त्वेषः) energy in Agni, which causes the expansion of the universe/world.

अग्ने ... येनान्तरिक्षम् उर्व् आततन्थ त्वेषः स भानुर् अर्णवो नृचक्षाः ॥ (Yajurveda. 12.48)<ref name=":7" />

'''Forms of Energy''': Yajurveda talks about the "three bodies" or forms of Agni.

# या ते अग्नेऽयःशया तनूः - Ayas (अयस्) here means dhatu or metal; Agni or Energy within the metals. The core of the earth is described as ball of metallic fire. ('''Terrestrial Metallic Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने रजःशया तनूः - Rajas (रजस्) denotes molecules in space and the energy form is indicated by Vidyut or Electricity, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. ('''Atmospheric Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने हरिशया तनूः - The term Hari (हरि) represents Sun and sunrays. The heat energy residing in Sun and the warmth and heat of sun all represent the heat form of energy. ('''Solar Form of Energy''')

== Interesting Vedic knowledge of Surya ==
'''Solar Energy''': Vedic knowledge of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] and its energy is extensive according to Dwivedi.<ref name=":6" /> He provides the textual references to the following aspects

- सप्त आदित्या: Sapta Aditya (सप्त दिशो नानासूर्याः...), '''there are seven suns''' according to Rigveda (9.114.3) and Atharvaveda mentions that the central Surya is Kashyap, while Taittriya Aranyaja (1.7.1) gives the names of these seven suns.

- '''Hydrogen and Helium as the energy source''': सोमेन - आदित्या बलिन: । (Atha. Veda. 14.1.2) Dwivedi refers Soma to Hydrogen from which Sun gains its energy. Yajurveda (9.3)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9])</ref> refers two tattvas or nature of Sun's energy that exist in Surya - सूर्ये सन्तं समाहितम्

# "अपां रसम्" meaning that which is the essence of Ap or water in a gaseous form denoted by the term "उद्वयस्" Udvayas. These in modern terms refer to Hydrogen (split from water) in a gaseous form.
# "अपां रसस्य यो रस:" meaning that which is the essence of the essence of Ap which in modern terms indicates Helium.

- '''Sun spots''': Rigvedic terms (Rig. Veda. 1.164.14) such as चक्षु (मंडल, घेरा) रजस् (धूल, धब्ब) indicate that Surya is associated with spots, a fact identified since early ancient times.

- Sun-rays: The seven horses of Surya represent the seven rays of the sun. <blockquote>अव दिवस्तारयन्ति सप्त सूर्यस्य रश्मयः । आपः समुद्रिया धारास्तास्ते शल्यमसिस्रसन् ॥१॥<ref>Atharva Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Kanda 7 Sukta 112])</ref></blockquote>Many such concepts require further studies and exploration in terms of modern sciences.

== Electricity ==
Different kinds of electricity

• Tadita (तडित) Generated by rubbing silk cloths

• Saudamini (सौदामिनी ) Generated by rubbing two gems

• Vidyut (विद्युत) Generated from thunder

• Shatakumbhi (शतकुंभी) Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)

• Hrdani (हृदनी) Stored electricity with portable properties

• Ashani (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)

=== Construction of Electric Cell ===
It is mentioned by some scholars that Agasthya described how to make an electric battery and separate water into oxygen and hydrogen.<ref name=":5" /><ref>Ali, T., Afrin, D., & Gain, J. (2024). The Contribution of Ancient India to the Advancement of Modern physics: A Comprehensive study. ''International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation'', 245–252. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17613/75bc-9552</nowiki></ref><blockquote>संस्थाप्य मृण्मये पात्रे ताम्रपात्रं सुसंस्कृतम्‌। छादयेच्छिखिग्रीवेन चार्दाभि: काष्ठापांसुभि:॥ </blockquote>A clay pot was covered with a clean copper plate, copper sulfate, and moist sawdust. The cathode, Mitra, and the anode, Varuna, were zinc amalgam sheets placed on top of these layers. To boost electricity, 100 Shata Kumbha jars were linked. As the reaction occurred, water split into Oxygen (pranavayu) and Hydrogen (udanavayu). In an airtight cloth, hydrogen gas was collected for aerodynamic use.

However, the shloka has been unverified at the time of compilation of this article. In the reference<ref>Jha, B. (Ed.). (2009). ''Agastya Samhita''. Mahavir Mandir Prakashan. (p. 30-32)

<nowiki>https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/agastya-samhita-sage-agastya-bhavanath-jha/Agastya%20Samhita%20-%20Sage%20Agastya%20%2C%20Bhavanath%20Jha.pdf</nowiki></ref> of the text '''Agastya samhita, edited by Pt. Bhavanath Jha''', Acharya Kishore Kunal in his preface discussed the topic of Agasthya samhita's association with the usage and preparation of dry battery cell. He brings into context several aspects of scholarly discussions about Varuna, Pranavayu and Udanavayu that throw light on the later day interpolations and wrong attributions of electric batteries to Agastya Samhita. It was shown how Agasthya samhita deals with yoga and higher philosophical contexts and does not contain aspects of Physics. This information he mentions was posted by Chinmay Yuva Kendra in 2006 in a website, under the heading "Ancient Indian Approach to Science" as a part of Chronicles of Hinduism series.

== References ==
[[Category:Physics]]

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

2025-12-02T11:16:25Z

Fordharma: /* Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects */

{{ToBeEdited}}

Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":0">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>

== Introduction ==
Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometers per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time.

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.

== Source Texts for Physics in India ==
There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.

# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.
# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.
# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.
# '''Puranas''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>
# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.
# '''Siddhanta granthas''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.
# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.
# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, Mahabharata, Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.
## '''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.
## '''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.
## '''Natyashastra''' - describes various musical instruments and their acoustical characteristics
## '''Agasthya Samhita''' - describes electrical cells

== Padarthas in Vaiseshika Darshana ==
In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides matter, or substance into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":0" />

# Substance (dravya)
# Quality (guna)
# Action (karma)
# Generality (sāmānya)
# Individuality (viśesa)
# Inherence (samavāya)

Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:

* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref name=":8">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* स्पर्शवान् वायुः । वैशेषिक-२,१.४ । Vayu (Air) has touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
*

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects ===
In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include

# रूप or form/shape/colour
# रस or taste
# गन्ध or smell
# स्पर्श or touch
# संख्या or numbers/counting
# परिमाणानि or various measures such as length, area, volume, weight etc.
# पृथक्त्वं is being distinguished (to be separated)
# संयोग is conjunction or joining (or combination)
# विभाग is disjunction, disjoining or division
# परत्व is being next (spatially next or temporally later or subsequent)
# अपरत्व is being previous (spatially previous or temporally previous or earlier)
# बुद्धयः intellects (several)
# सुख is happiness
# दुःख is sorrow
# इच्छा is desire
# द्वेष is aversion
# प्रयत्नाः relates to efforts

The first 11 (from rupa to aparatva) are the qualities of physical substances or entities (dravya). The last 6 (from Buddhi to Prayatna) are the qualities of the Mind and Self (they are considered dravyas). Prayatna (effort) is a quality of Self while the rest of the 5 are the qualities of the mind.

The first 11 qualities mentioned above are well known as physical properties in Physics and Chemistry. Conventionally, every substance is examined for the same physical properties. Quality of counting is fundamental for any material entity. The qualities of being previous and being next are related to Space and time also. Conjunctive and disjunctive interactions are very common in Physics and chemistry wherein two or more entities or substances can be combined to form a new entity or an existing entity can be decomposed into several individual entities.

Prashastapada elaborated further on Gunas and brought in additional Gunas as follows:<ref name=":9" />

# गुरुत्व - Gurutva having weight, heaviness
# द्रवत्व - Dravatva having liquidity or fluidity
# स्नेह - Moisture, softness, viscidity or stickiness
# संस्कार - trait, habit, impression
# धर्म - Dharma or merit
# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit
# शब्द - Sound

=== Air vs Space ===
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":0" />

=== Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===
Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space. <blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence.

Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":3">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>

इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>

- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Time, space, Atma and mind are the eternal or nitya dravyas and none of them are perceivable by any of the sense organs is a basic definition in Vaiseshika. Although, these four eternal entities can only be conceived by the mind, they are real existent dravyas or entities. Time, space and akasa are incapable of motion and it is only the earth, water, fire and air (the four dravyas) and mind which are capable of motion.<blockquote>
दिक्कालावाकाशं च क्रियावद्वैधर्म्यान्निष्क्रियाणि । वैशेषिक-५,२.२१ ।</blockquote>
Meaning: Space, time, Akasa and Atman (indicated by the word "Cha") are void of action because of their difference from that which possesses activity.<ref name=":3" />

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.

== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as

# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations
# '''Rta or Natural Law''' as the transcendental and unitary principle of all motions (universal and individual)
# '''Yajna''' as the connective dynamic principle and nucleus of all evolution
# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.

These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.

=== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":1">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>

=== Rta ===
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practitioners of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energize the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":1" />

The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest (Potential Energy) changed to kinetic form (Kinetic Energy) and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.'' The term Kinetic Energy relates purely to motion and does not carry other meanings related to rta as in the Vedic context, i.e., rta represents motion charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose.<ref name=":2">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>

Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''.
Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda.

Dharma is science and nothing but science an most certainly not religion in the Vedic context.<ref>Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. (27-31)

<nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":2" />

rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":2" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

=== Yajna ===
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":1" />

=== Ap (Water) ===
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":1" />

=== Panchamahabhutas ===
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":1" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.

== Concept of Motion ==

=== Cosmic Motion ===
In the discussion about Rta, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":4">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,

=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===
Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":4" />

* ability to act as substratum of qualities/attributes
* being endowed with motion (kriyatattva)
* to provide an inherent or material cause
Parispanda sometimes stands for motion molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (e.g. vibration). All action, operation, work (Kriya, Vyapara) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff.<ref>Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>

=== Karma or Activity in terms of Physical Motion ===
'''Three characteristics of Karma''' or activity defined as per Vaiseshika Sutras are<blockquote>एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.17)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The three characteristics are

# Activity depends on substance
# Activity does not possess any quality inherently. It is substance that possess guṇa and karma.
# Movements cause disjunction (Vibhāga) of a substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (saṃyoga) with a new position. Thus activity brings out conjunction and disjunction.

-In a living organism, karma is initiated from within by Effort (Prayatna).

-In a non-living organism, karma is not initiated from within and needs an external agent to initiate. This is because effort (Prayatna) is a quality of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Ātman]].

'''Kinds of Karma''': Motion in the sense of activity is of five kinds.<blockquote>उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>They are<ref name=":9">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref>

* Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement, upward thrust)
* Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement, downward thrust)
* Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion, pulling towards a point)
* Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension, spreading, transmission)
* Gamana (general movements)

It is interesting to see the definition of general motion distinguished from the other four specific categories of motion. Prashastapada identified many more categories of motion as follows:<blockquote>गमनग्रहणाद्भ्रमण-रेचन-स्पन्दनोर्ध्वज्वलनतिर्यक्पतननमनोन्नमनादयो गमनविशेषाः । ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashya])</blockquote>While motion (gamana) can mean, in general, any type of motion, as defined in a given context, Prashastapada has identified some well known additional categories of motion that are universally observable and referred to in later sutras of Vaiseshika:<ref name=":9" />

* भ्रमणम् or circular motion or rotation
* रेचनम् or gushing out or expulsion
* स्पंदनम् is the harmonic motion or beat (as in the case of heart beat or हृदयस्पंदनम्)
* ऊर्ध्वज्वलनम् or upward burning (of flame)
* तिर्यक्पतनम् or falling backwards
* नमनम् or bending forward
* उन्नमनम् rising upward

'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":9" />

* Having existence (सद्)
* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)
* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)
* being the कारणं or cause (of something which is a result or effect)
* being सामान्य or generalized and विशेषवत् or specialized

Prashastapada adds two more properties to the above namely अभिधेयत्व and ज्ञेयत्व i.e., naming (them) and knowing (them). It meaning being identified with a name and also being known.

=== Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth ===
The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>

== Light ==
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.<ref name=":5">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>

* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Prakasha''' refers to the illuminating aspect of consciousness. Prakasha is the light that illuminates our thoughts, feelings, and experiences and allows us to know and understand the world around us.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.<ref name=":5" />

== ऊर्जा तापश्च ॥ Energy and Heat ==
Vedic Physics describes Prakriti as the material cause of the the creation while in modern physics it is called Energy. Affected by the divine touch of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakriti]] the inert unconscious entity is set into motion, i.e., rta, and invariably follows the creative process. Characteristics of Prakriti include having eternal existence and capability of conserving itself in any of the three states of its being namely<ref name=":2" />

* existence
* motion
* and transformation to any form of matter
'''Potential and Kinetic Energy:''' In many Veda mantras, Agni represents the forms of Energy.<ref name=":6">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref> In Yajurveda<blockquote>अग्निरमृतो नि धायि । (Yaju. Veda. 12.24)<ref name=":7">Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>

अग्निरमृतोऽभवद् वयोभिर् । (Yaju. Veda. 12.25)</blockquote>Meaning - Agni (Energy form) is eternal and indestructible. It remains indestructible in the mortal world or jagat, due to its potential energy denoted by the term वयस्।

Earlier it was seen how Rta is understood as Kinetic Energy.

'''Transformation of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> Vedas proclaim that Agni (in the form of Energy) is One; it undergoes transformation and hence various are its names. It has the capability to all activities, hence it is called Visvakarma. Urja or energy takes many forms hence it is called Vishvarupa. <blockquote>यो देवानां नामधा एक एव.. ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda 10.82.3)<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A8 Mandala 10 Sukta 82])</ref>

स्तीर्णा अस्य संहतो विश्वरूपा । (Rig. Veda. 3.1.7)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9.%E0%A5%A7 Mandala 3 Sukta 1])</ref> </blockquote>

'''Omnipresence of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> All [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]] proclaim that Agni imparts the quality of movement or chetana and is all-pervading in every atom of the Dyulok (heavenly), Antariksha (Celestial region) and Earth. Due to this energy, there is movement, existence and transformation in every particle. Hence Agni is said to pervade the heavens and earth with the core activity of causing movement. <blockquote>रोदसी भानुना भात्यन्तः ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.45.4)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AB Mandala 10 Sukta 45])</ref>

विश्वस्य केतुर् भुवनस्य गर्भऽ आ रोदसी ऽ अपृणाज् जायमानः । (Yajurveda. 12.23)<ref name=":7" /> </blockquote>'''Power of Expansion''':<ref name=":6" /> Yajurveda recounts the expansive quality of extreme heat (denoted by the term त्वेषः) energy in Agni, which causes the expansion of the universe/world.

अग्ने ... येनान्तरिक्षम् उर्व् आततन्थ त्वेषः स भानुर् अर्णवो नृचक्षाः ॥ (Yajurveda. 12.48)<ref name=":7" />

'''Forms of Energy''': Yajurveda talks about the "three bodies" or forms of Agni.

# या ते अग्नेऽयःशया तनूः - Ayas (अयस्) here means dhatu or metal; Agni or Energy within the metals. The core of the earth is described as ball of metallic fire. ('''Terrestrial Metallic Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने रजःशया तनूः - Rajas (रजस्) denotes molecules in space and the energy form is indicated by Vidyut or Electricity, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. ('''Atmospheric Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने हरिशया तनूः - The term Hari (हरि) represents Sun and sunrays. The heat energy residing in Sun and the warmth and heat of sun all represent the heat form of energy. ('''Solar Form of Energy''')

== Interesting Vedic knowledge of Surya ==
'''Solar Energy''': Vedic knowledge of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] and its energy is extensive according to Dwivedi.<ref name=":6" /> He provides the textual references to the following aspects

- सप्त आदित्या: Sapta Aditya (सप्त दिशो नानासूर्याः...), '''there are seven suns''' according to Rigveda (9.114.3) and Atharvaveda mentions that the central Surya is Kashyap, while Taittriya Aranyaja (1.7.1) gives the names of these seven suns.

- '''Hydrogen and Helium as the energy source''': सोमेन - आदित्या बलिन: । (Atha. Veda. 14.1.2) Dwivedi refers Soma to Hydrogen from which Sun gains its energy. Yajurveda (9.3)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9])</ref> refers two tattvas or nature of Sun's energy that exist in Surya - सूर्ये सन्तं समाहितम्

# "अपां रसम्" meaning that which is the essence of Ap or water in a gaseous form denoted by the term "उद्वयस्" Udvayas. These in modern terms refer to Hydrogen (split from water) in a gaseous form.
# "अपां रसस्य यो रस:" meaning that which is the essence of the essence of Ap which in modern terms indicates Helium.

- '''Sun spots''': Rigvedic terms (Rig. Veda. 1.164.14) such as चक्षु (मंडल, घेरा) रजस् (धूल, धब्ब) indicate that Surya is associated with spots, a fact identified since early ancient times.

- Sun-rays: The seven horses of Surya represent the seven rays of the sun. <blockquote>अव दिवस्तारयन्ति सप्त सूर्यस्य रश्मयः । आपः समुद्रिया धारास्तास्ते शल्यमसिस्रसन् ॥१॥<ref>Atharva Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Kanda 7 Sukta 112])</ref></blockquote>Many such concepts require further studies and exploration in terms of modern sciences.

== Electricity ==
Different kinds of electricity

• Tadita (तडित) Generated by rubbing silk cloths

• Saudamini (सौदामिनी ) Generated by rubbing two gems

• Vidyut (विद्युत) Generated from thunder

• Shatakumbhi (शतकुंभी) Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)

• Hrdani (हृदनी) Stored electricity with portable properties

• Ashani (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)

=== Construction of Electric Cell ===
It is mentioned by some scholars that Agasthya described how to make an electric battery and separate water into oxygen and hydrogen.<ref name=":5" /><ref>Ali, T., Afrin, D., & Gain, J. (2024). The Contribution of Ancient India to the Advancement of Modern physics: A Comprehensive study. ''International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation'', 245–252. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17613/75bc-9552</nowiki></ref><blockquote>संस्थाप्य मृण्मये पात्रे ताम्रपात्रं सुसंस्कृतम्‌। छादयेच्छिखिग्रीवेन चार्दाभि: काष्ठापांसुभि:॥ </blockquote>A clay pot was covered with a clean copper plate, copper sulfate, and moist sawdust. The cathode, Mitra, and the anode, Varuna, were zinc amalgam sheets placed on top of these layers. To boost electricity, 100 Shata Kumbha jars were linked. As the reaction occurred, water split into Oxygen (pranavayu) and Hydrogen (udanavayu). In an airtight cloth, hydrogen gas was collected for aerodynamic use.

However, the shloka has been unverified at the time of compilation of this article. In the reference<ref>Jha, B. (Ed.). (2009). ''Agastya Samhita''. Mahavir Mandir Prakashan. (p. 30-32)

<nowiki>https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/agastya-samhita-sage-agastya-bhavanath-jha/Agastya%20Samhita%20-%20Sage%20Agastya%20%2C%20Bhavanath%20Jha.pdf</nowiki></ref> of the text '''Agastya samhita, edited by Pt. Bhavanath Jha''', Acharya Kishore Kunal in his preface discussed the topic of Agasthya samhita's association with the usage and preparation of dry battery cell. He brings into context several aspects of scholarly discussions about Varuna, Pranavayu and Udanavayu that throw light on the later day interpolations and wrong attributions of electric batteries to Agastya Samhita. It was shown how Agasthya samhita deals with yoga and higher philosophical contexts and does not contain aspects of Physics. This information he mentions was posted by Chinmay Yuva Kendra in 2006 in a website, under the heading "Ancient Indian Approach to Science" as a part of Chronicles of Hinduism series.

== References ==
[[Category:Physics]]

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

2025-12-02T08:39:40Z

Fordharma: added content

{{ToBeEdited}}

Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":0">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>

== Introduction ==
Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometers per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time.

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.

== Source Texts for Physics in India ==
There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.

# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.
# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.
# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.
# '''Puranas''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>
# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.
# '''Siddhanta granthas''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.
# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.
# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, Mahabharata, Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.
## '''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.
## '''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.
## '''Natyashastra''' - describes various musical instruments and their acoustical characteristics
## '''Agasthya Samhita''' - describes electrical cells

== Padarthas in Vaiseshika Darshana ==
In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides matter, or substance into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":0" />

# Substance (dravya)
# Quality (guna)
# Action (karma)
# Generality (sāmānya)
# Individuality (viśesa)
# Inherence (samavāya)

Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:

* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref name=":8">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* स्पर्शवान् वायुः । वैशेषिक-२,१.४ । Vayu (Air) has touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
*

=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects ===

=== Air vs Space ===
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":0" />

=== Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===
Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space. <blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence.

Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":3">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>

इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>

- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Time, space, Atma and mind are the eternal or nitya dravyas and none of them are perceivable by any of the sense organs is a basic definition in Vaiseshika. Although, these four eternal entities can only be conceived by the mind, they are real existent dravyas or entities. Time, space and akasa are incapable of motion and it is only the earth, water, fire and air (the four dravyas) and mind which are capable of motion.<blockquote>
दिक्कालावाकाशं च क्रियावद्वैधर्म्यान्निष्क्रियाणि । वैशेषिक-५,२.२१ ।</blockquote>
Meaning: Space, time, Akasa and Atman (indicated by the word "Cha") are void of action because of their difference from that which possesses activity.<ref name=":3" />

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.

== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as

# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations
# '''Rta or Natural Law''' as the transcendental and unitary principle of all motions (universal and individual)
# '''Yajna''' as the connective dynamic principle and nucleus of all evolution
# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.

These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.

=== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":1">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>

=== Rta ===
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practitioners of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energize the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":1" />

The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest (Potential Energy) changed to kinetic form (Kinetic Energy) and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.'' The term Kinetic Energy relates purely to motion and does not carry other meanings related to rta as in the Vedic context, i.e., rta represents motion charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose.<ref name=":2">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>

Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''.
Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda.

Dharma is science and nothing but science an most certainly not religion in the Vedic context.<ref>Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. (27-31)

<nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":2" />

rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":2" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

=== Yajna ===
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":1" />

=== Ap (Water) ===
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":1" />

=== Panchamahabhutas ===
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":1" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.

== Concept of Motion ==

=== Cosmic Motion ===
In the discussion about Rta, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":4">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,

=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===
Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called parispanda (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":4" />

* ability to act as substratum of qualities/attributes
* being endowed with motion (kriyavattva)
* to provide an inherent or material cause

=== Karma or Activity in terms of Physical Motion ===
'''Three characteristics of Karma''' or activity defined as per Vaiseshika Sutras are<blockquote>एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.17)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The three characteristics are

# Activity depends on substance
# Activity does not possess any quality inherently. It is substance that possess guṇa and karma.
# Movements cause disjunction (Vibhāga) of a substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (saṃyoga) with a new position. Thus activity brings out conjunction and disjunction.

-In a living organism, karma is initiated from within by Effort (Prayatna).

-In a non-living organism, karma is not initiated from within and needs an external agent to initiate. This is because effort (Prayatna) is a quality of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Ātman]].

'''Kinds of Karma''': Motion in the sense of activity is of five kinds.<blockquote>उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>They are<ref name=":9">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref>

* Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement, upward thrust)
* Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement, downward thrust)
* Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion, pulling towards a point)
* Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension, spreading, transmission)
* Gamana (general movements)

It is interesting to see the definition of general motion distinguished from the other four specific categories of motion. Prashastapada identified many more categories of motion as follows:<blockquote>गमनग्रहणाद्भ्रमण-रेचन-स्पन्दनोर्ध्वज्वलनतिर्यक्पतननमनोन्नमनादयो गमनविशेषाः । ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashya])</blockquote>While motion (gamana) can mean, in general, any type of motion, as defined in a given context, Prashastapada has identified some well known additional categories of motion that are universally observable and referred to in later sutras of Vaiseshika:<ref name=":9" />

* भ्रमणम् or circular motion or rotation
* रेचनम् or gushing out or expulsion
* स्पंदनम् is the harmonic motion or beat (as in the case of heart beat or हृदयस्पंदनम्)
* ऊर्ध्वज्वलनम् or upward burning (of flame)
* तिर्यक्पतनम् or falling backwards
* नमनम् or bending forward
* उन्नमनम् rising upward

'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":9" />

* Having existence (सद्)
* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)
* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)
* being the कारणं or cause (of something which is a result or effect)
* being सामान्य or generalized and विशेषवत् or specialized

Prashastapada adds two more properties to the above namely अभिधेयत्व and ज्ञेयत्व i.e., naming (them) and knowing (them). It meaning being identified with a name and also being known.

=== Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth ===
The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>

== Light ==
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.<ref name=":5">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>

* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Prakasha''' refers to the illuminating aspect of consciousness. Prakasha is the light that illuminates our thoughts, feelings, and experiences and allows us to know and understand the world around us.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.<ref name=":5" />

== ऊर्जा तापश्च ॥ Energy and Heat ==
Vedic Physics describes Prakriti as the material cause of the the creation while in modern physics it is called Energy. Affected by the divine touch of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakriti]] the inert unconscious entity is set into motion, i.e., rta, and invariably follows the creative process. Characteristics of Prakriti include having eternal existence and capability of conserving itself in any of the three states of its being namely<ref name=":2" />

* existence
* motion
* and transformation to any form of matter
'''Potential and Kinetic Energy:''' In many Veda mantras, Agni represents the forms of Energy.<ref name=":6">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref> In Yajurveda<blockquote>अग्निरमृतो नि धायि । (Yaju. Veda. 12.24)<ref name=":7">Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>

अग्निरमृतोऽभवद् वयोभिर् । (Yaju. Veda. 12.25)</blockquote>Meaning - Agni (Energy form) is eternal and indestructible. It remains indestructible in the mortal world or jagat, due to its potential energy denoted by the term वयस्।

Earlier it was seen how Rta is understood as Kinetic Energy.

'''Transformation of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> Vedas proclaim that Agni (in the form of Energy) is One; it undergoes transformation and hence various are its names. It has the capability to all activities, hence it is called Visvakarma. Urja or energy takes many forms hence it is called Vishvarupa. <blockquote>यो देवानां नामधा एक एव.. ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda 10.82.3)<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A8 Mandala 10 Sukta 82])</ref>

स्तीर्णा अस्य संहतो विश्वरूपा । (Rig. Veda. 3.1.7)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9.%E0%A5%A7 Mandala 3 Sukta 1])</ref> </blockquote>

'''Omnipresence of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> All [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]] proclaim that Agni imparts the quality of movement or chetana and is all-pervading in every atom of the Dyulok (heavenly), Antariksha (Celestial region) and Earth. Due to this energy, there is movement, existence and transformation in every particle. Hence Agni is said to pervade the heavens and earth with the core activity of causing movement. <blockquote>रोदसी भानुना भात्यन्तः ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.45.4)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AB Mandala 10 Sukta 45])</ref>

विश्वस्य केतुर् भुवनस्य गर्भऽ आ रोदसी ऽ अपृणाज् जायमानः । (Yajurveda. 12.23)<ref name=":7" /> </blockquote>'''Power of Expansion''':<ref name=":6" /> Yajurveda recounts the expansive quality of extreme heat (denoted by the term त्वेषः) energy in Agni, which causes the expansion of the universe/world.

अग्ने ... येनान्तरिक्षम् उर्व् आततन्थ त्वेषः स भानुर् अर्णवो नृचक्षाः ॥ (Yajurveda. 12.48)<ref name=":7" />

'''Forms of Energy''': Yajurveda talks about the "three bodies" or forms of Agni.

# या ते अग्नेऽयःशया तनूः - Ayas (अयस्) here means dhatu or metal; Agni or Energy within the metals. The core of the earth is described as ball of metallic fire. ('''Terrestrial Metallic Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने रजःशया तनूः - Rajas (रजस्) denotes molecules in space and the energy form is indicated by Vidyut or Electricity, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. ('''Atmospheric Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने हरिशया तनूः - The term Hari (हरि) represents Sun and sunrays. The heat energy residing in Sun and the warmth and heat of sun all represent the heat form of energy. ('''Solar Form of Energy''')

== Interesting Vedic knowledge of Surya ==
'''Solar Energy''': Vedic knowledge of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] and its energy is extensive according to Dwivedi.<ref name=":6" /> He provides the textual references to the following aspects

- सप्त आदित्या: Sapta Aditya (सप्त दिशो नानासूर्याः...), '''there are seven suns''' according to Rigveda (9.114.3) and Atharvaveda mentions that the central Surya is Kashyap, while Taittriya Aranyaja (1.7.1) gives the names of these seven suns.

- '''Hydrogen and Helium as the energy source''': सोमेन - आदित्या बलिन: । (Atha. Veda. 14.1.2) Dwivedi refers Soma to Hydrogen from which Sun gains its energy. Yajurveda (9.3)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9])</ref> refers two tattvas or nature of Sun's energy that exist in Surya - सूर्ये सन्तं समाहितम्

# "अपां रसम्" meaning that which is the essence of Ap or water in a gaseous form denoted by the term "उद्वयस्" Udvayas. These in modern terms refer to Hydrogen (split from water) in a gaseous form.
# "अपां रसस्य यो रस:" meaning that which is the essence of the essence of Ap which in modern terms indicates Helium.

- '''Sun spots''': Rigvedic terms (Rig. Veda. 1.164.14) such as चक्षु (मंडल, घेरा) रजस् (धूल, धब्ब) indicate that Surya is associated with spots, a fact identified since early ancient times.

- Sun-rays: The seven horses of Surya represent the seven rays of the sun. <blockquote>अव दिवस्तारयन्ति सप्त सूर्यस्य रश्मयः । आपः समुद्रिया धारास्तास्ते शल्यमसिस्रसन् ॥१॥<ref>Atharva Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Kanda 7 Sukta 112])</ref></blockquote>Many such concepts require further studies and exploration in terms of modern sciences.

== Electricity ==
Different kinds of electricity

• Tadita (तडित) Generated by rubbing silk cloths

• Saudamini (सौदामिनी ) Generated by rubbing two gems

• Vidyut (विद्युत) Generated from thunder

• Shatakumbhi (शतकुंभी) Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)

• Hrdani (हृदनी) Stored electricity with portable properties

• Ashani (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)

=== Construction of Electric Cell ===
It is mentioned by some scholars that Agasthya described how to make an electric battery and separate water into oxygen and hydrogen.<ref name=":5" /><ref>Ali, T., Afrin, D., & Gain, J. (2024). The Contribution of Ancient India to the Advancement of Modern physics: A Comprehensive study. ''International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation'', 245–252. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17613/75bc-9552</nowiki></ref><blockquote>संस्थाप्य मृण्मये पात्रे ताम्रपात्रं सुसंस्कृतम्‌। छादयेच्छिखिग्रीवेन चार्दाभि: काष्ठापांसुभि:॥ </blockquote>A clay pot was covered with a clean copper plate, copper sulfate, and moist sawdust. The cathode, Mitra, and the anode, Varuna, were zinc amalgam sheets placed on top of these layers. To boost electricity, 100 Shata Kumbha jars were linked. As the reaction occurred, water split into Oxygen (pranavayu) and Hydrogen (udanavayu). In an airtight cloth, hydrogen gas was collected for aerodynamic use.

However, the shloka has been unverified at the time of compilation of this article. In the reference<ref>Jha, B. (Ed.). (2009). ''Agastya Samhita''. Mahavir Mandir Prakashan. (p. 30-32)

<nowiki>https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/agastya-samhita-sage-agastya-bhavanath-jha/Agastya%20Samhita%20-%20Sage%20Agastya%20%2C%20Bhavanath%20Jha.pdf</nowiki></ref> of the text '''Agastya samhita, edited by Pt. Bhavanath Jha''', Acharya Kishore Kunal in his preface discussed the topic of Agasthya samhita's association with the usage and preparation of dry battery cell. He brings into context several aspects of scholarly discussions about Varuna, Pranavayu and Udanavayu that throw light on the later day interpolations and wrong attributions of electric batteries to Agastya Samhita. It was shown how Agasthya samhita deals with yoga and higher philosophical contexts and does not contain aspects of Physics. This information he mentions was posted by Chinmay Yuva Kendra in 2006 in a website, under the heading "Ancient Indian Approach to Science" as a part of Chronicles of Hinduism series.

== References ==
[[Category:Physics]]

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

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Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

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Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

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Rta (ऋतम्)

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{{ToBeEdited}}

Ṛta (Samskrit: ऋतम्) is the eternal path of divine righteousness for all beings, including humans and gods, which must be followed in thought and action to discover and maintain oneself in the truth. This may be termed as the unseen order of things<ref>Pandey, A., & Gupta, R. K. (2008). Spirituality in management: A review of contemporary and traditional thoughts and agenda for research. ''Global Business Review'', ''9''(1), 65-83.</ref>.

== Introduction ==

== Etymology ==
The word ''‘ṛta’'' has no equivalent in English but is loosely translated as the ‘cosmic order in the universe’ or ‘divine law governing the universe’.

The word ''‘ṛta’'' is derived from the root word ‘ṛ’, meaning ‘gati’. The word ‘gati’ literally means ‘motion’ as per the root; authorities have specified that it signifies three domains in its expression, jnana, gamana and prapti. Here it signifies ''‘dynamism’, ‘vibrancy’, ‘seasoning’ and ‘belongingness’.''<ref name=":0">''Foundations of Sanātana Dharma'' by ''Śatāvadhāni'' Dr. R Ganesh ([http://indiafacts.org/the-pillars/ http://indiafacts.org/the-pillars/)]</ref> The six synonyms of 'Rta' in the Nighantu are as follows:<blockquote>बट्, श्रत्, सत्रा, अद्धा, इत्था, ऋतम् इति सत्यस्य [ ऋतम् इति षट् सत्यनामानि] | १० |<ref>Nighantu ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Nirukta (10.41) mentions 'rta' to mean 'water'. The Vedic god Varuṇa, identified with water and the oceans, is frequently referred to as the protector of ''ṛta''. The symbolism of water and the ocean in connection with ''ṛta'' is profound.<ref name=":3">Kane, Pandurang Vaman. (1953) ''History of Dharmasastra (Ancient and Medieval Religious and Civil Law in India), Volume 4.'' Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>

== Rta in Rigveda ==
The idea of pataka in the Rgveda is related to the conception of rta. Rta had a threefold aspect it refers to

- the nature's course of things or the regular and general order in the cosmos

- the correct and ordered way of the devatas (with respect to yajnas)

- the moral conduct of man

A few passages to illustrate these three aspects of rta include <blockquote>ऋतस्य हि शुरुधः सन्ति पूर्वीरृतस्य धीतिर्वृजिनानि हन्ति । ऋतस्य श्लोको बधिरा ततर्द कर्णा बुधानः शुचमान आयोः ॥८॥</blockquote><blockquote>ऋतस्य दृळ्हा धरुणानि सन्ति पुरूणि चन्द्रा वपुषे वपूंषि । ऋतेन दीर्घमिषणन्त पृक्ष ऋतेन गाव ऋतमाविवेशुः ॥९॥</blockquote><blockquote>ऋतं येमान ऋतमिद्वनोत्यृतस्य शुष्मस्तुरया उ गव्युः । ऋताय पृथ्वी बहुले गभीरे ऋताय धेनू परमे दुहाते ॥१०॥ (Rig. Veda. 4.23.8-10)<ref>Rig Veda ([http://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-04-sukta-023/ Mandala 4 Sukta 23])</ref></blockquote>In these three verses 'rta' occurs no less than twelve times, which breathes the all-pervading influence of 'rta' throughout the universe.

'Plentiful waters (or riches or gifts) belong to rta; the thought (or laudation) of rta destroys crooked acts (sins); the brilliant and rousing hymn of praise to rta pierces the benumbed ears of man. The props of rta are firm; its (physical) manifestations are many and lovely for the sake of the body (i.e., man). Through rta they (people) desire food. The cows (sun's rays) entered rta by rta. He who wins over rta acquires it. For the sake of rta (heaven), and earth are wide and deep; the two highest cows (i.e., heaven and earth) yield milk (desires or rewards) for the sake of rta.

=== Rta and Varuna ===
Some other passages are "The Sindhus (rivers) follow the rta of Varuna' (rtam sindhavo Varunasya yanti, Rg. II 28 4), similarly Rg I 105 12 (rtamarganti sindhavah), The wheel of rta (i.e., the year) revolves round the sky with twelve spokes (Dvadasaram...varvarti cakram pari dyam-rtasya, Rig 1.164.11) 'the dawr, the daughter of heaven, correctly follows the path of rta ... ...' ('rtasya panthanam-anveti sādhu', Rg I 124 3); the young woman (Ugas) does not destroy (or come in the way of) the light of sta (Rg I 123 9 ); the gun is the bright and lovely face of rta (Rg VI. 51. 1. 'rtasya suci darbatam-anikam); the path of Eta became united with the rays' (Rg. I 136 2); when exhilarated by drinking this (Soma) Indra released for the sake of rta the concealed host of cows' (Rg. I 121 4, probably a reference to drought and subsequent rainfall). Many of the principal gods of the Vedic pantheon are described as the guardians, promoters or charioteers of fta, Mitra and Varupa rule over all the world by rta (Rg V. 637, rtens visvam bhuvanam vi rajathah); Matra and Varuna, the protectors of rta, occupy a chariot (R& V. 63 1), Mitra, Varuna, and Aryaman are said to be charioteers of rta (yüyamrtasya rathyah, VII 66 12); they and Aditi and Bhaga are protectors of rta (Rg. VI 51 3) Agni is called the charioteer of [ta' (rathi rtasya, Rg. III. 28), the proteclor of ýta, in Rg. 1.1 8,1 10,2, X. 8.5, X 118.7 and rtavan (in Rg IV.2.1). Soma is styled the protector of rta (in Rg. IX, 48 4, IX 738) and is said to support sta (IX, 97.24 ytam bharat subhrtam carvindub) In Rg. VII. 66.13 the Adityas' are said to be stalan (acting according to the fixed order of nature), mlajāta (sprung from rta) and rtávedh (augmenting or rejoicing in rta) and further they are said to be fierce baters of anyta (what is opposed to rta).'

=== Rta and Satya ===
The concoption of rta as a moral imperative occurs in several passages Rg 1. 90 6 ( madhu vata rtayate madhu kgaranti sindhavah) 'the winds carry sweets, the rivelo do the same to him who keeps rta', RE V 12 2 'O Agni, that knowost rta, know rta alono (in me) I shall not resort to magio either by force or hy duplicity, I shall conform to rta of the reddish bull (1 e of Agni); Rg. X 87 11 'O Agoil may the evil spirt who injures rta by anrta be thrice bound in thy fetters' Yama in rejecting Yami's advances says (Rg X. 10 4) 'What indeed we never did beforo (shall we do it now?); shall we who have spoken rta (so far) now speak anta ?' (rta vadanto anriam rapema) In two or three instances sta appears to be almost personifi. ed and invoked as a divinity. 'O Agni for us offer yajna to Mitra and Varuna, to the gods and to the great (brhat) rta' (Rg I 75 5). Similarly, in Rg X, 66 4 the great mahat) rta 18 mentioned alongside of Aditi, Heaven and Earth, Indra, Vippu, the Maruts &c. Rta and satya were distinguished in several passages of the Roveda T'or example, Rg. V. 51 2 speaks of the Visvo Dovas as 'rtadhitayah' (whose thoughts were fixed on rta) and 'satyadharmanah'(whose characteristic is truth or whose dharmas are true). In Rg. IX 113,4 rta and satya both ooour and appear to mean almost the same thing In Rg X. 1901 rta and satya are distinguished as having sprung from 'tapas'. Rta involves a wider conception and satya had originally a restrioted meaning (viz truth or static order). The word aneta, however, is the | 5, ऋत चिकत्व अवामाच्चाद्धबृतस्य धारा अनु वृन्ध पूर्वी । गाई पात सहसा में 4444 TOU. I * V 12.2.

Meaning of ria cpposite of both rta and satya as may be seen from Rg X. 10.4, Rg VII. 49.3 (Varuna who marks the salya and anyta of people), Rg. X. 124,5 (Varuna who separates anrta by means of rla). Gradually, however, the word rta receded into the back-ground and salya took its place even in Vedic literature, though here and there (as in Tai, Up. II 1 and 1.9.1) both sta and satya are found in juxtaposition.

=== Rta and Yajna ===
Rta is distinguished from yajña. It is not any particular yajnika rite itself nor the institution of yajna, It stands for the ordered course of yajna in general In Rg. IV. 3.4. Agni is styled raat (conversant with or observing fta) and is invoked to know the rta (of the yajna); in several Fersos we meet with the words 'Itena stam' (e. g. in Rg IV. 3.9 rtens rtam niyatam-ila a goh', V. 15.2 ctena stam dharunam dhārayanta yaj asya sake, V. 68.4 rtam-stena sapanta conforming to or joining rta with ria', where 'ftena' appears to mean the correct course of yajnika rites and tam the settled order in the universe. Soma is said to be the thread of rta spread on the datapartra (Rg. IX, 73.9 Itasya tantur-vitataḥ pavitra a). In | +, मतावाना अजाता ऋताबधों घोरासो अनूतद्विष. । तैषा वैः सुम्ने सन्र्दष्टमे नरः TYR E . 1 . VII, 66.13

Rg. I 84.4 t 15 said ' Indra, drink this (soma) that is extracted ..the streams of the bright (soma) flow towards thee in the seat of rta' (i e, in the sonia yajna) Vide also Rg IV 113 (asmakam-atra pitaro manusya abhi pra sedur-tap-i susinah) 'in this world former men, our ancestors, approached rta eto', Rg I 71 3 (dadhannrtam dhanayannasya dhitim-adidaryo) Rg. X 67 2 (rtam samsanta rju didhyapa yajñasya dhama prathamam mananta) 'the Angirasas, declaring the rta and reflecting straightforwardly first thought of the abode of Yaña', Rg. X 371 (maho devāy. tad-itam saparyata, "offer this rte to the great God')
== Detailed Discussion ==
In Ṛgveda and Arthavaveda, it is said that the law behind existence is ''ṛta'' and to tamper with it will prove deadly. The whole of creation is called ''sat,'' which has an inbuilt cosmic law, ''ṛta''. If ''sat'' (existence) is a fact, then the value which we realize out of it is ''ṛta'' (cosmic law). '''When we realize ''ṛta'', the value of the whole of creation, we are humbled and naturally become more caring towards the universe.''' The entire universe supports our sustenance and the whole of creation toils for our existence. This awareness infuses immense gratitude in our hearts. This indebtedness—akin to guilt but without the negativity—that arises in a sensitive mind is called ''ṛṇa''. (In common parlance, the word ''ṛṇa'' refers to ''‘being in debt’'' – of a physical, monetary kind.) In the Vedic conception, every human being by birth carries this baggage of ṛṇa. It is an unwritten duty to clear this debt to the universe. Without this, one will not achieve his or her life’s purpose. The way to clear this debt is by adhering to dharma. Thus, the awareness of ṛta leads to the realization of ṛṇa, which in turn motivates one to pursue dharma.<ref name=":0" />
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]

Vyasa Smrti (व्यासस्मृति:)

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Fordharma: added category

[[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedanga]] is a class of works regarded as auxiliary to the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|four Vedas]] and designed to aid in the correct pronunciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the [[Mantra (मंत्र)|Mantras]] in ceremonials. The Vedangas are six in number—[[Shiksha (शिक्षा)|Shiksha]] (the science of proper articulation and pronunciation), [[Chandas (छन्दस्)|Chandas]] (the science of prosody), [[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyakarana]] (grammar), [[Nirukta (निरुक्तम्)|Nirukta]] (etymological explanation of difficult Vedic words), [[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotish]] (astronomy) and [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]] (ritual or ceremonial).<ref>V S Apte (2000), The Student's Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Delhi: MLBD</ref> The Kalpasutra is fourfold namely, [[Shrautasutras (श्रौतसूत्राणि)|Shrautasutra]], [[Grhyasutras (गृह्यसूत्राणि)|Grhyasutra]], [[Dharmasutras (धर्मसूत्राणि)|Dharmasutra]] and [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulvasutra]]. The Dharmasutra containing the Do’s and Don’ts of the social life got enlarged as the [[Dharmashastras (धर्मशास्त्राणि)|Dharmashastra]] or [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|Smrti literature]] in later years. The Trimuni of Indian [[Nyaya (न्यायः)|Nyaya]] (Law and Order) are: [[Narada (नारदः)|Narada]], Brihaspati and Katyayana.<ref>Uma Sankara Sarma 'Rsi' (2004), Samskrta Sahitya ka Itihasa, Varanasi: Chaukhamba Bharati Academy</ref>

If the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]] and the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] give the basic philosophy of Hinduism, the [[Dharmashastras (धर्मशास्त्राणि)|Dharmashastras]], comprising the [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|Smrtis]], the [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] and the Nibandhas (digests), give the rules and regulations that guide a Hindu in his personal and social life.

The word Smrti in a technical sense refers to the secondary scriptures like the Manusmrti and others which remind one, of the great spiritual truths contained in the Vedas.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
According to Swami Harshananda,<ref>Swami Harshananda (2008), A Concise Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Volume 3, Bangalore: Ramakrishna Math</ref> Vyasa—also known as Krishna Dvaipayana and Vedavyasa—is the reputed author of the epic Mahabharata and also the Puranas. However, the Vyasasmrti as available now in print is a work of another Vyasa who might have lived during the period 200-500 AD. He might have been a contemporary of other writers of smrtis like Brihaspati and Yajnavalkya. This Smrti is found in the collection of Smrtis by Jivananda and also in the Anandashrama collection. The two texts are same with a few variations.<ref>P V Kane (1968), History of Dharmasastra (Volume 1, Part 1), Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</ref>

== अध्यायसारः ॥ Chapter Contents ==
It is in four chapters and contains about 250 verses. Vyasa is said to have declared the Smrti in Benares. The contents briefly are: extent of the land where the dharmas described here apply; relative authoritativeness of the Shruti, Smrti and the Puranas; mixed castes; the sixteen samskaras; duties of a brahmacharin; duties of a wife; nitya (daily rites), naimittika (occasional rites) and kamya (rites for specific future fruition) karmas of a householder; eulogy of the householder stage and of gifts.

Other well-known writers on the dharmashastra often quote verses as of Vyasa. These are mostly from the Mahabharata. There are also verses not found in the epic. These verses—about 200 in number—deal with the topic of vyavahara or common laws. Quite a few legal matters bearing on gifts of land, procedures in lawsuits and division of ancestral property are dealt with in these verses. The topic of shraddha (obsequial rites) is also touched upon.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Chapter
!First Heading
!Last Heading
!Number of Verses
|-
|One
|धर्माचरणादेश-प्रयुक्त-वर्ण-षोडश-संस्कार-वर्णनम्

(dharmācaraṇādeśa-prayukta-varṇa-ṣoḍaśa-saṃskāra-varṇanam)

i.e. description of sixteen sacraments for each class according to the scriptures
|ब्रह्मचर्याधिकार:

(brahmacaryādhikārah)

i.e. do’s and dont’s of the Brahmachari
|41
|-
|Two
|विवाहविधिवर्णनम् (vivāha-vidhi-varṇanam)

i.e. description of the marriage ritual
|स्त्री-अधिकार: (strī-adhikārah)

i.e. rights of women
|56
|-
|Three
|सस्नानादि-विधि-पूर्वाह्न-कृत्य-वर्णनम् (sasnānādi-vidhi-pūrvāhna-kṛtya-varṇanam)

i.e. description of daily rites
|गृहस्थाह्निक: (gṛhasthāhnikah)

i.e. description of the Grihastha ashrama
|71
|-
|Four
|गृहस्थाश्रम-प्रशंसा-पूर्वक-तीर्थ-धर्म-वर्णनम्

(gṛhasthāśrama-praśaṃsā-pūrvaka-tīrtha-dharma-varṇanam)

i.e. eulogy of the Grihastha ashrama along with description of pilgrimage, duties etc.
|गृहस्थाश्रम-प्रशंसादि-वर्णन:

(gṛhasthāśrama-praśaṃsādi-varṇanah)

i.e. eulogy of the Grihastha ashrama
|72
|-
|
|
|Total number of verses
|240
|}

=== प्रथमाध्याय: ॥ First Adhyaya ===
The story begins with that Vedavyasa was living happily in Varanasi when the munis (thoughtful sages) asked him the duties of all varnas (castes). So, he began his discourse by explaining where the Vedic dharma can prevail (verse 3) and so on. According to him, Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas are twice-born i.e. they can chant Gayatri and thus, they should follow the Shrutis (Vedas), Smritis and Puranas (verse 5). The Shudra can practice dharma but without chanting the Vedic mantras, and words like svadha, svaha, vashat etc. (verse 6). He then extols different types of lower castes resulting from inter-caste marriages. One should purify oneself by a bath after talking to them and watch the sun after seeing them (verse 12). This is followed by the mention of sixteen sanskaras i.e. rituals from birth to death (verse 15) to be followed by different castes in various ways. Vedavyasa then details the do’s and dont’s of the Brahmachari.

=== द्वितीयाध्याय: ॥ Second Adhyaya ===
The second chapter with 56 verses deals with the second, Grihastha ashrama detailing the qualities of the bride and groom, marriageable castes, marriage ritual, duties of the wife and life of a widow. The relationship of the husband and wife is best expressed in the following verse 27:<blockquote>छायेवानुगता स्वच्छा सखीव हितकर्मसु । दासीवादिष्टकार्येषु भार्या भर्तु: सदा भवेत् ॥ chāyevānugatā svacchā sakhīva hitakarmasu | dāsīvādiṣṭakāryeṣu bhāryā bhartuh sadā bhavet ||</blockquote>Meaning: The wife should always chastely follow her husband like a shadow. She should be like his friend in welfare activities, should obey him like an attendant and the husband should always financially support her.

=== तृतीयाध्याय: ॥ Third Adhyaya ===
Vyasa begins this chapter with the three kinds of karma i.e. action namely, nitya, naimittika and kamya with regards to the householders. According to him, a Brahmin who does not study the Vedas is a Shudra (verse 11).

=== चतुर्थाध्याय: ॥Fourth Adhyaya ===
The last chapter starts with the eulogy of the domestic life that there is no duty higher than that of the householder.<blockquote>गृहाश्रमात् परो धर्मो नास्ति नास्ति पुन: पुन:॥ gṛhāśramāt paro dharmo nāsti nāsti punah punah || (4.2)</blockquote>It then continues with the duties of the husband and how he should conduct himself in the house especially regarding the donations to Brahmins (verse 15 onwards). Vyasa seems to be a champion of the Brahmins as he states:<blockquote>ब्राह्मणात् परमं तीर्थं न भूतं न भविष्यति॥ brāhmaṇāt paramaṃ tīrthaṃ na bhūtaṃ na bhaviṣyati || (4.12)</blockquote>He defines Acharya to be one who maintains the daily fires, is an ascetic and teaches Vedas along with Kalpa and Upanishads:<blockquote>अग्निहोत्री तपस्वी च वेदमध्यापयेच्च य:। सकल्पं सरहस्यं च तमाचार्यं प्रचक्षते॥ agnihotrī tapasvī ca vedamadhyāpayecca yah | sakalpaṃ sarahasyaṃ ca tamācāryaṃ pracakṣate || (4.43)</blockquote>

== उपसंहार: ॥ Conclusion ==
The consulted edition of the text<ref>(1981), Smrti Sandarbha, Delhi: Nag Publishers</ref> comprising of 240 verses states itself to be a collection of the essence of all duties of an individual fulfilling all the conditions of a Smrti.<blockquote>इति व्यासकृतं शास्त्रं धर्मसारसमुच्चयम्। iti vyāsakṛtaṃ śāstraṃ dharmasārasamuccayam | (4.1)</blockquote>Vyasa dealt with rules of procedure and the several titles of law (vyavahara-padas) and his doctrines closely agreed in most respects with those of Narada, Katyayana and Brihaspati. He seems to represent a middle stage in the evolution of the rights of the widow to succeed to her deceased husband. Thus, it can be safely concluded that he flourished about the same time as Yajnavalkya and Brihaspati i.e. between the second and the fifth century AD.

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Smrtis]]

Rna (ऋणम्)

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Fordharma: removed template

[[File:1._Rnas_web.jpg|alt=|border|right|frameless|354x354px]]
Rna (Samskrit: ऋणम्) refers to the concept of pious obligations that evolved as part of [[Dharma (धर्मः)|Dharma]]. They are specific responsibilities to be discharged by every individual during one's lifetime in gratitude to the various benefits that one obtains in life from different sources.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction<ref name=":0">Justice Mandagadde Rama Jois (1997), [https://www.vhp-america.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/DHARMA_Ram_Jois.pdf Dharma: The Global Ethic], Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref> ==
The [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]] laid down that every individual should discharge three pious obligations. This concept of pious obligations emanated from one of the basic [[Values Based On Dharma (धर्माधिष्ठितगुणाः)|values of life]] evolved as part of Dharma, namely, Gratitude. In that, every individual has an obligation to the source from which every type of benefit was received by him including his own coming into existence. The three pious obligations were
# Deva Rna (Towards the Supreme Being)
# Pitru Rna (Towards Parents)
# Rishi Rna (Towards Rishis)
In fact, the entire ancient law evolved in this country was based upon the principle of these three debts. Subsequently, [[Vyasa (व्यासः)|Maharshi Vyasa]], the Adi Guru who systematised [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the Four Vedas]] and authored the [[Mahabharata (महाभारतम्)|Mahabharata]], added the fourth pious obligation towards Human Society, namely, Manava Rna.

The relevant verse in the Mahabharata where these four pious obligations have been indicated are in Adi Parva (Adhyaya 120.17-20). It says,<blockquote>ऋणैश्चतुर्भिः संयुक्ता जायन्ते मानवा भुवि | पितृदेवर्षिमनुजैर्देयं तेभ्यश्च धर्मतः ||</blockquote><blockquote>r̥ṇaiścaturbhiḥ saṁyuktā jāyante mānavā bhuvi | pitr̥devarṣimanujairdeyaṁ tebhyaśca dharmataḥ || </blockquote>Meaning: Every individual should discharge four pious obligations. They are Deva Rna (towards the Supreme Being), Pitru Rna (towards parents), Rishi Rna (towards teachers) and Manava Rna (towards humanity).

It also indicated the method by which the four pious obligations are to be discharged.<blockquote>यज्ञैस्तु देवान् प्रीणाति स्वाध्यायतपसा मुनीन् | पुत्रैः श्राद्धैः पितृंश्चापि आनृशंस्येन मानवान् || </blockquote><blockquote>yajñaistu devān prīṇāti svādhyāyatapasā munīn | putraiḥ śrāddhaiḥ pitr̥ṁścāpi ānr̥śaṁsyena mānavān ||</blockquote>Meaning: One should discharge Pitru Rna by maintaining continuity of the family, Deva Rna by worship of the Supreme, Rishi Rna by the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge and Manava Rna by every type of social service.<ref>M.Rama Jois (2004), Trivarga, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>

== देवऋणम् ॥ Deva Rna<ref name=":0" /> ==
[[File:2. Deva Rna web.jpg|thumb|568x568px|'''<big>Deva Rna</big>''']]
Deva Rna refers to obligation towards the Supreme Being who is the Creator. Therefore, Deva Rna is to be discharged by worshipping the Supreme Being in various ways and performing [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajnas]]. It was prescribed with the objective of discharging gratitude of an individual for bringing him to life as a human being, providing with him all the physical and intellectual capacities and also providing Nature for his benefit. However, no particular deity was specified and no particular form of worship was prescribed. It was left to the choice of the individual to worship the Supreme Being in whatever form he pleased. It is due to this reason that, in [[Bharatavarsha (भरतवर्षम्)|Bharata]], limitless names of the Supreme Being and varied modes of worship came into existence depending upon individual preference. There was no persuasion or force. As a result, individuals began to worship the Supreme in the manner it pleased them. This type of worship came to be known as "Worship of Ishtadevata" ie. the form of the Supreme as per one's liking. Apart from this, plants, animals and even inanimate objects were regarded as manifestation of the Supreme and people began to worship them according to their own liking. The basis of worship of the Supreme in whatever manner one pleases in is again the expression of the sense of gratitude. Apart from this, such worship also develops a sense of respectful-fear towards the Supreme in the individual. This constitutes an internal check against causing injury to other individuals and also to other living beings, in the belief that it would amount to inflicting injury on the Supreme Being himself.

Anyone who is not conversant with the total freedom given to individuals to worship the Supreme in any form thinks that the people in this country believe that there are crores of deities. But actually, every one in this land believes that the Supreme Being is one irrespective of the innumerable names by which he is worshipped on different occasions and for different purposes. This broad outlook is found incorporated in the following verse. It says,<blockquote>यं शैवा: समुपासते शिव इति ब्रह्मेति वेदान्तिनो बौद्धा बुद्ध इति प्रमाणपटव: कर्तेति नैय्यायिका: |</blockquote><blockquote>अर्हन्नित्यथ जैनशासनरता: कर्मेति मीमांसिका: सौऽयं नो विदधातु वाञ्छितफलं त्रैलोक्यनाथो हरि: ||3||<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.325912/page/n3/mode/2up Hanuman Nataka]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''yaṁ śaivā: samupāsate śiva iti brahmeti vedāntino bauddhā buddha iti pramāṇapaṭava: karteti naiyyāyikā: |''</blockquote><blockquote>''arhannityatha jainaśāsanaratā: karmeti mīmāṁsikā: sau'yaṁ no vidadhātu vāñchitaphalaṁ trailokyanātho hari: ||3||''</blockquote>Meaning: May the Lord of the universe, whom the Shaivas call and worship as Shiva, the Vedantins as [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], the Bauddhas as Buddha, the Naiyyayikas as Karta, the Jainas as Arhat and the mimamsakas worship as 'Karma' fulfill the desires of all.

This verse refers to different modes of worship of the Supreme by different names, by persons belonging to different philosophical schools founded in the land of Bharata. It declares that despite the fact that the Supreme Being is apparently worshipped by innumerable names and the belief that there are crores of deities, the firm belief of all in this land is that the Supreme Being is one. The fact that people worship the Supreme by giving innumerable names to Him only establishes that there is perfect and absolute religious freedom in this country and no one is compelled to worship the Supreme in any single particular manner. Religious indoctrination or dictatorship has been a taboo in this land, in view of the fact that our society is a 'Dharma'-based society that thrives of mutual respect.

For this reason, Dharma regards worshipping the Supreme as fulfillment of Deva Rna. Therefore, a follower of Dharma, is ready and willing to pray to the Supreme and has least opposition to the form of worship or place of worship. Such is the breadth and width of the vision of Dharma. That is why, a pre-eminent position was accorded to Dharma which in the course of history came to be called as Hindu Dharma or Hinduism. In this regard, the following excerpt from the book "Dialogues with the [[Guru (गुरुः)|Guru]]", a record of dialogue with Jagadguru Sri. Chandrashekhara Bharati, the 33rd Shankaracharya of Sringeri is enlightening. It says, <blockquote>''Hinduism is the name which has now been given to our system, but its real name has always been [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]] or the Eternal Law. It does not date from a particular point of time or begin from a particular founder. Being eternal, it is also universal. It knows no territorial jurisdiction. All beings born and to be born belong to it.''</blockquote>Thus, every individual is governed by Dharma. It is a code of right conduct to be obeyed by all human beings, in order to enable them to live in harmony not only with fellow human beings but also with plant and animal life.

== पितृऋणम् ॥ Pitru Rna<ref name=":0" /> ==
[[File:3. Pitru Rna web.jpg|thumb|447x447px|'''<big>Pitru Rna</big>''']]
Pitru Rna or the idea of discharging the pious obligation towards parents is one of the most cherished values of Dharma. Ancestral worship is a part of this pious obligation but not the whole. The Vedas directed every individual to treat his mother and father as Devatas. This concept itself is so inspiring. For, as far as the child born is concerned, not only it gets birth from its parents but it is also looked after by its father and mother. The child gets its early nourishment and care from its parents. It is the parents who secure education for the child. Again this concept of worshipping the father and the mother as equal to the Supreme also flows from the basic value of Gratitude. As one gets birth from the Parents and one gets education from the parents and they shape the life of the children, it was regarded as the duty of the children to worship the father and the mother as equal to the Supreme and to look after them in old age. It is this value which has sustained the moral character of the individual and also it is this sense of gratitude, which makes him serve not only the parents but also the brothers and sisters and other dependents who all belong to the same family. It is therefore laid down that it is the duty of every individual to discharge the pious obligation towards parents.

As part of the pious obligation towards parents, it was the duty of every individual to rear and bring up children in the family tradition and to educate them and impart moral character to them by securing them proper education through teachers and make them good human beings and make them an asset to society. In fact the desire to maintain family reputation without doing anything which is derogatory to that reputation has been an important factor in inculcating honesty and character in many individuals. It is again by the discharge of this pious obligation, that peaceful and moral family life was sought to be established.

In fact the obligation towards parents was also the basis for the concept of the inseparable relationship between husband and wife. It is needless to state that, the husband and the wife cannot discharge the obligation to the parents by merely having children. The children have to be protected against the moral and material abandonment. They were also to be educated in a proper manner and after they come of age, they were also to be inducted into family life. Thus, it was the duty of the husband and the wife to look after their children until they were fully educated and their marriages were performed. In fact, this duty is being performed in an exemplary manner even now in this country.

== ऋषिऋणम् ॥ Rishi Rna<ref name=":0" /> ==
[[File:4. Rishi Rna web.jpg|thumb|518x518px|'''<big>Rishi Rna</big>''']]

Rishi Rna or the obligation towards teachers is another cherished value of the ancient Bharatiya culture, and probably the most important, as it enables an individual to discharge the other three pious obligations properly and efficiently. This pious obligation was required to be discharged by the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge. In view of this, it was the duty of every individual to secure proper education, and acquire knowledge, and this had to be done with great effort from the Primary level upto the highest. And the only method to acquire knowledge is studying hard, painstaking efforts, concentration of mind and devotion. Knowledge cannot be acquired by easy or dubious methods. This aspect is highlighted in the following verse,<blockquote>सुखार्थी वा त्याजेद्विद्यां विद्यार्थी वा त्याजेत्सुखम् | सुखार्थीन: कुतो विद्या नास्ति विद्यार्थिन: सुखम् ||3||<ref>Chanakya Niti, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83#%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 10].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''sukhārthī vā tyājedvidyāṁ vidyārthī vā tyājetsukham | sukhārthīna: kuto vidyā nāsti vidyārthina: sukham ||3||''</blockquote>Meaning: If you are after luxury and easy going then forget the desire to secure knowledge. If you are desirous of acquiring knowledge, then do not go after luxury and easy life during your studentship. There is no chance for an individual who is after luxury and easy methods of securing knowledge. There is no room to be luxurious and easy going to one who desires to acquire knowledge.

Because, a student who has the desire to acquire knowledge must put in hard labour and great efforts and concentration of mind. A man may become rich or secure wealth by many easy ways including inheritance of ancestral property. But that is not possible in the case of knowledge. It has to be self acquired only.

Therefore, to discharge the third pious obligation, namely obligation towards the teacher, one had to make great efforts to acquire knowledge. Further, it was also the duty of an individual after acquiring knowledge to improve or enlarge his knowledge by study and research and disseminate it to Society and to Posterity.

Great importance was attached to the discharge of this obligation. Kishori Lal Sarkar in his Tagore Law Lectures has dwelt at great length upon these pious obligations. In particular, regarding the pious obligation towards teacher (Rishi Rna), he has stated that this was being discharged faithfully for thousands of years in this country. The remarkable performance of this duty by the ancient society is evidenced by the vast body of knowledge acquired and accumulated in the Vedas, the [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] and various other invaluable and everlasting literary works.
As to the importance given to education in ancient Bharata's society, it is sufficient to quote the following verse composed by the great Sanskrit poet Bhartruhari who flourished around first century B.C.E.,<blockquote>विद्या नाम नरस्य रूपमधिकं प्रच्छन्नगुप्तं धनं विद्या भोगकरी यशस्सुखकरी विद्या गुरूणां गुरु: |</blockquote><blockquote>विद्या बंधुजनो विदेशगमने विद्या परा देवता विद्या राजसु पूजिता न तु धनं विद्याविहीन: पशु: ||20||<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Niti Shataka].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''vidyā nāma narasya rūpamadhikaṁ pracchannaguptaṁ dhanaṁ'' ''vidyā bhogakarī yaśassukhakarī vidyā gurūṇāṁ guru: |''</blockquote><blockquote>''vidyā baṁdhujano videśagamane vidyā parā devatā'' ''vidyā rājasu pūjitā na tu dhanaṁ vidyāvihīna: paśu: ||20||''</blockquote>Meaning: Education is the special manifestation of a human being; Education is the treasure which can be preserved without fear of loss; Education secures material pleasure, happiness and fame; Education is the teacher of the teacher; Education is one's friend when one goes abroad; Education is the Supreme incarnate; It is Education that secures honour at the hands of the State, not money; A human being without education is equal to animal.

Also, as every individual has the pious obligation to acquire, and disseminate knowledge, it follows that the right to education as well as the right to impart education constitutes the most valuable fundamental right.

== मानवऋणम् ॥ Manava Rna<ref name=":0" /> ==
[[File:5. Manava Rna web.jpg|thumb|'''<big>Manava Rna</big>'''|471x471px]]
Manava Rna refers to obligation towards humanity. It stands to the great credit of Maharshi Vyasa that he considered that the three pious obligations on the part of every individual laid down in the Vedas required to be supplemented by the fourth, the Manava Rna, to make the obligation of individuals to society full and complete. Maharshi Vyasa declared that discharging every kind of social obligation to society forms part of the fourth pious obligation. This pious obligation is of great importance and covers every field of human activity. In fact, it is in the discharge of this obligation, that many individuals have rendered yeoman seva (सेवा | selfless service) and have spent considerable part of their wealth for innumerable kinds of social welfare schemes or projects or institutions since time immemorial and continue to do so.

It is on account of this fourth pious obligation, that it is stated that 'Service to Humanity is Service to Divinity'. In fact this obligation supplements the first obligation namely discharging Deva Rna. After all, every human being and every living being is an incarnation of the Supreme and therefore serving living beings is equal to serving the Supreme Being. Thus, Manava Rna constitutes a pious obligation and was so declared by Maharshi Vyasa.

Swami Vivekananda highlights this aspect and states that every individual who has secured all kinds of help from Society and who has secured education through educational institutions established by the society is under an obligation to serve them. If an individual, after securing education from the institutions established by society did not care for them and fails to use his knowledge in the seva (सेवा | selfless service) of society and uses it for making illegitimate wealth or profit, it is a clear instance of ingratitude and abuse of knowledge.

A few illustrations as to how the fourth pious obligation can be discharged are,
# Construction of wells or tanks to secure drinking water for the public in general.
# Construction of water turfs at public places and on the roadside for the benefit of travellers and for animals.
# Planting of trees on both sides of roads to provide shade or shelter to the travelling public.
# Construction of Dharma Shalas in towns and villages and more particularly at places of Pilgrimages for the use of pilgrims and travellers.
# Construction of hospitals for human beings, animals and birds as well as donations for construction of Hospitals or to hospitals already established.
# Construction of buildings for educational institutions, hostels etc.
# Establishing goshalas to look after cows and bullocks in their old age.
# Establishing public trusts and/or endowment for any public cause.
The above are only illustrative and not exhaustive. There are innumerable ways in which an individual can discharge the fourth pious obligation of Manava Rna. It is very large and ever expanding. It is on account of this pious obligation that Seva and Tyaga have become the National Ideals of Bharata.

== ऋणविमोचनार्थं विवाहः ॥ Marriage as a Means to Honour the Rnas<ref name=":0" /> ==
The sanctity attached to the relationship of the husband and wife brought about by [[Vivaha (विवाहः)|Vivaha]] (marriage) and the inseparability of their relationship was the firm foundation laid by the propounders of Dharma, on which the social life was constructed. This again had its source in the principle of three debts or three pious obligations.
Deva Rna (pious obligation to the deities) was required to be discharged through yajnas and other virtuous deeds such as making gifts to deserving people, as a householder. It was ordained that all such acts must be performed by the husband and the wife jointly. This injunction is being obeyed down to this day.<blockquote>प्रजनार्थं स्त्रिय: सृष्टा: संतानार्थं च मानवा: | तस्मात्सधारणो धर्म: श्रुतौ पत्न्या सहोदित: ||96||<ref>Manusmrti, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 9].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''prajanārthaṁ striya: sr̥ṣṭā: saṁtānārthaṁ ca mānavā: | tasmātsadhāraṇo dharma: śrutau patnyā sahodita: ||96||'' </blockquote>Meaning: To be mothers were women created and to be fathers men; religious rites therefore are ordained in the Veda to be performed by the husband together with his wife.

== संहृतिः ॥ Synopsis<ref name=":0" /> ==
Everyone of the laws laid down in ancient Bharata was meant to give effect to the pious obligations. Highlighting this aspect K.L. Sarkar stated thus,<blockquote>''In interpreting texts relating to the duties and rights of the Hindus, these principles must always be kept in view, and it should be presumed that all the texts are more or less intended to promote these three classes of duties.''</blockquote><blockquote>''The civil law of the Hindus is at every step marked with the influence of the three-debt obligation...''</blockquote><blockquote>''Therefore it is clear that whenever two constructions of a text are possible, one tending to the discharge of one or other of the three debts, and the other inconsistent with such discharge, the former construction is to be adopted and not the later.''</blockquote>In order to impress upon every individual as to how he should conduct himself, at the end of Shikshavalli, (Ch. 1, Lesson-11) advice is given to the outgoing students. Excerpts from it are reproduced below, which give an idea about the good conduct expected from them throughout their life.<blockquote>सत्यं वद | धर्मं चर |... सत्यान्न प्रमदितव्यम् | धर्मान्न प्रमदितव्यम् |... मातृदेवो भव | पितृदेवो भव | आचार्यदोवो भव | अतिथिदेवो भव | यान्यनवद्यानि कर्माणि | तानि सेवितव्यानि | नो इतराणि |... एष आदेश: | एष उपदेश: एतदनुशासनम् |<ref>Taittiriya Upanishad, Shikshavalli, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80#%E0%A5%A5_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8A%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A5 Anuvaka 11].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''satyaṁ vada | dharmaṁ cara | satyānna pramaditavyam | dharmānna pramaditavyam |'' ''mātr̥devo bhava | pitr̥devo bhava | ācāryadovo bhava | atithidevo bhava |'' ''yānyanavadyāni karmāṇi | tāni sevitavyāni | no itarāṇi |...'' ''eṣa ādeśa: | eṣa upadeśa: etadanuśāsanam |'' </blockquote>Meaning: Speak the truth; follow the prescribed conduct; Do not fail to pay attention to truth; Never fail to perform duty. Do not disregard what is proper and treat your Mother, Father and Teacher well and as equal to the Supreme Being. So also, treat your guest as Supreme. Those acts that are irreproachable alone are to be performed, and not those that are forbidden. This is the directive. This is the advice. This is the discipline to be observed throughout life.

A reading of every one of the directive given to students is highly inspiring and it concludes with the statement that it is the advice (Upadesha) and it is the directive (Adesha). It is not only a specific injunction to an outgoing student but also a direction to every human being. Thus the directive to every individual to discharge the four pious obligations is one of the most important values of life which forms part of 'Dharma'.

== References ==
[[Category:Dharmas]]
<references />

Sannyasashrama (सन्न्यासाश्रमः)

2025-10-27T07:38:19Z

Fordharma: removed template

[[File:15.1 Sannyasashrama web.jpg|border|right|frameless|565x565px]]
It is said that, when one becomes a Sannyasin, he renounces all possessions. He lives alone on alms and spends his time in meditation. When he attains the sublime state of deep meditation he rejoices in the Self. He is quite indifferent to sensual pleasures. He is free from likes and dislikes, desires, egoism, lust, anger, greed and pride. He has equal vision and balanced mind. He disseminates Brahma Jnana or Knowledge of the Self. And is the same in honour and dishonour, praise and censure, success and failure. At this stage he becomes Ativarnashrami, i.e., above Varna and Ashrama. He is quite a free man, not bound by any social customs and conventions. Such a Sannyasin is referred to as an ideal.<ref>Swami Sivananda (1999), [http://www.dlshq.org/download/hinduismbk.pdf All About Hinduism], Uttar Pradesh: The Divine Life Society.</ref>

The Bhagavata Purana describes the ideal nature of a Sannyasi as follows:<blockquote>सुशीलो मितभुग्दक्षः श्रद्दधानो जितेन्द्रियः । यावदर्थं व्यवहरेत्स्त्रीषु स्त्रीनिर्जितेषु च ॥ ६॥<ref name=":4">Bhagavata Purana, Skandha 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12].</ref>

''suśīlo mitabhugdakṣaḥ śraddadhāno jitendriyaḥ । yāvadarthaṁ vyavaharetstrīṣu strīnirjiteṣu ca ॥ 6॥''</blockquote>Meaning: He should be of a good character, moderate in eating, alert and prompt (in work), of reverential faith in shastras and self-controlled. It is only when absolutely necessary and to that much extent only that he should deal with women (eg. for getting alms) or with those who are influenced by women.<ref name=":3">Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare, The Bhagavata Purana (Part III), Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology (Volume 9), Edited by J.L.Shastri, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150116/page/n99 P.no.968-969].</ref>

== परिभाषा ॥ Meaning ==
Sannyasa in itself is many-a-times thought of as negative since it means a curtailment, if not a total abandonment, of social activities. But there are Upanishads that enjoin the continuance of these activities throughout life. For example, in its first verse, Isha Upanishad inculcates complete renunciation but qualifies it in the very next one by adding that incessant activity is also necessary.<ref name=":9">T.M.P.Mahadevan, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.264370/mode/2up?view=theater The Upanishads], Madras: G.A.Natesan & Co.</ref><blockquote>ईशा वास्यमिदँ सर्वं यत्किञ्च जगत्यां जगत् । तेन त्यक्तेन भुञ्जीथा मा गृधः कस्यस्विद्धनम् ॥ १ ॥

कुर्वन्नेवेह कर्माणि जिजीविषेच्छतँ समाः । एवं त्वयि नान्यथेतोऽस्ति न कर्म लिप्यते नरे ॥ २ ॥<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D Isha Upanishad]</ref>

īśā vāsyamidam̐ sarvaṁ yatkiñca jagatyāṁ jagat । tena tyaktena bhuñjīthā mā gr̥dhaḥ kasyasviddhanam ॥ 1 ॥

kurvanneveha karmāṇi jijīviṣecchatam̐ samāḥ । evaṁ tvayi nānyatheto'sti na karma lipyate nare ॥ 2 ॥</blockquote>The natural inference to be drawn from it is that one should live amidst others all his life, discharging one's duties towards them but should never think of reaping any personal benefit by doing so. Another important aspect of sannyasa is devotion to the service of others.

Thus, Sannyasa signifies self-renunciation and not world-renunciation. And it is this teaching of Nishkama karma that was emphasized in the Bhagavad Gita thereby shifting the emphasis from the form of sannyasa to its spirit.<ref name=":9" />

== Sannyasin ==
A sannyasin is essentially a renouncer. The word sannyasa or sannyasin occurs for the first time in the Taittiriya Aranyaka (10.10.3). (?) The other words equivalent to Sannyasin include Parivrajaka or Parivraj, Yati, Shramana and Bhikshu.

The word Samnyasa occurs in the Mundaka Upanishad as Samnyasayogat.<ref name=":62" />

वेदान्तविज्ञानसुनिश्चितार्थाः संन्यासयोगाद् यतयः शुद्धसत्त्वाः ।

ते ब्रह्मलोकेषु परान्तकाले परामृताः परिमुच्यन्ति सर्वे ॥ ३.२.६ ॥<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Mundakopanishad]</ref>

== When should one adopt Sannyasashrama ? ==
वनी भूत्वा प्रव्रजेत् । यदि वेतरथा ब्रह्मचर्यादेव प्रव्रजेद्गृहाद्वा वनाद्वा । अथ पुनरव्रती वा व्रती वा स्नातको वाऽस्नातको वा उत्सन्नाग्निरनग्निको वा यदहरेव विरजेत्तदहरेव प्रव्रजेत् ॥ ५ ॥<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Jabalopanishad (Yajurveda)]</ref>

Janaka, the King of Videha, came upto Yajnavalkya and said, ... After he has been a forest hermit, he should renounce. Or, rather, he may renounce directly from Vedic studentship, or home, or from forest. Let him even renounce on the very day that he ecomes detached, regardless of whether he has taken the vow (vedic initiation) or not, whether he has graduated or not, and whether he has kindled the sacred fire or is without fire ie. whether he is married or not.

Bhagavata Purana (1.2.2) exemplifies the condition wherein the renouncer need not have undergone even Vedic initiation.<ref name=":62">Anant Balwant Marathe (2011), The Socio-Religious Implications of Vanaprastha and Samnyasa, Delhi: New Bharatiya Book Corporation.</ref>

स खल्वेवं यो विद्वान्सोपनयनादूर्ध्वमेतानि प्राग्वा त्यजेत् ।<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Aruneyopanishad]</ref>

Verily who grasps the meaning of the Veda may after his initiation by the preceptor or even before that, renounce all this - his father and his son, the sacrificial fire and the sacrificial thread, his work and his wife and everything in this world.

Motives for renunciation:

# As the last stage of life organized on the basis of the Ashrama theory in its finished form.
# Renouncing on the very day one becomes detached from the worldly affairs; no matter in what stage of life one is in.<ref name=":62" />

Types of Sannyasa (Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ?)

* Vidvat-Sannyasa

एतं वै तमात्मानं विदित्वा ब्राह्मणाः पुत्रैषणायाश्च वित्तैषणायाश्च लोकैषणायाश्च व्युत्थायाथ भिक्षाचर्यं चरन्ति ।<ref>Brhadaranyakopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_3p Adhyaya 3])</ref>

The brahmanas having known that Self, having overcome the desire for sons, the desire for wealth, the desire for worlds, live the life of mendicants. This renunciation after knowing the Self is termed as Vidvatsamnyasa.<ref name=":62" />

* Vividisha Samnyasa

एतमेव प्रव्राजिनो लोकमिच्छन्तः प्रव्रजन्ति ॥ बृह. ४,४.२२ ॥<ref name=":8">Brhadaranyakopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_4p Adhyaya 4])</ref>

It is when they desire him (this immense unborn self) as their world that wandering ascetics undertake the ascetic life of wandering. This is termed as Vividisha Samnyasa or renunciation undertaken in order to know the ultimate reality.<ref name=":62" />

A vidvat-samyasin is essentially a muni. This is reinforced from the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad which states that only after knowing the (real) self, one becomes a muni.

एतमेव (आत्मानमेव) विदित्वा मुनिर्भवति ।<ref name=":8" />

While Manu connotes muni as vanaprastha which is brought out in his description of the food fit for a vanaprastha as munyannam.

मुन्यन्नैर्विविधैर्मेध्यैः शाकमूलफलेन वा । एतानेव महायज्ञान्निर्वपेद्विधिपूर्वकम् । । ६.५ । ।<ref>Manusmrti, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 6]</ref>

== सन्न्यासधर्मः ॥ Code of Conduct ==
The dharma of sannyasahrama is pursuit of pacification of manas, which can only happen with jnana.<ref>Dharm P.S. Bhawuk (2011), [https://lakshminarayanlenasia.com/articles/Spirituality-and-Indian-Psychology-Lessons-From-the-Bhagavad-Gita.pdf Spirituality and Indian Psychology: Lessons from the Bhagavad Gita], New York: Springer</ref>

If a person is capable and fit (physically and mentally), he should take to the life of a wandering hermit (Sannyasi). Owning nothing else except his body, he should observe the rule of staying one night in a village, and thus wander over the earth, being totally desireless.<ref name=":0">Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare, The Bhagavata Purana (Part III), Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology (Volume 9), Edited by J.L.Shastri, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, P.no.[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150116/page/n103 973-975].</ref><blockquote>कल्पस्त्वेवं परिव्रज्य देहमात्रावशेषितः । ग्रामैकरात्रविधिना निरपेक्षश्चरेन्महीम् ॥ १॥<ref name=":1">Bhagavata Purana, Skandha 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 13].</ref>

''kalpastvevaṁ parivrajya dehamātrāvaśeṣitaḥ । grāmaikarātravidhinā nirapekṣaścarenmahīm ॥ 1॥''</blockquote>A person in the renounced order of life may try to avoid even a dress to cover himself. It he wears anything at all, it should only be a loincloth, and when there is no necessity, a sannyasi should not even accept a danda. A sannyasi should avoid carrying anything but a danda and kamandalu.<ref name=":2">A.C.Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Srimad Bhagavatam (Seventh Canto), [http://prabhupadabooks.com/pdf/SB7.3.pdf Part 3-Chapters 10-15], 1976: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.</ref><blockquote>बिभृयाद्यद्यसौ वासः कौपीनाच्छादनं परम् । त्यक्तं न दण्डलिङ्गादेरन्यत्किञ्चिदनापदि ॥ २॥<ref name=":1" />

''bibhr̥yādyadyasau vāsaḥ kaupīnācchādanaṁ param । tyaktaṁ na daṇḍaliṅgāderanyatkiñcidanāpadi ॥ 2॥''</blockquote>According to the Bhagavata, a sannyasi should wander all alone as a mendicant subsisting on alms, delighted in his own Self and seeking no shelter. He should be friendly to all beings, serene and devoted exclusively to Narayana.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>एक एव चरेद्भिक्षुरात्मारामोऽनपाश्रयः । सर्वभूतसुहृच्छान्तो नारायणपरायणः ॥ ३॥<ref name=":1" />

''eka eva caredbhikṣurātmārāmo'napāśrayaḥ । sarvabhūtasuhr̥cchānto nārāyaṇaparāyaṇaḥ ॥ 3॥''</blockquote>He should visualize this universe in the immutable atman who is beyond (and distinct from) cause and effect and should perceive the Self as the Supreme Brahman present everywhere in the Universe , (a product) of causes and consequences. <ref name=":0" /><blockquote>पश्येदात्मन्यदो विश्वं परे सदसतोऽव्यये । आत्मानं च परं ब्रह्म सर्वत्र सदसन्मये ॥ ४॥<ref name=":1" />

''paśyedātmanyado viśvaṁ pare sadasato'vyaye । ātmānaṁ ca paraṁ brahma sarvatra sadasanmaye ॥ 4॥''</blockquote>During the mediate state between sleep and wakefulness, one should concentrate on the atman within, and should try to perceive the true nature of the Self. He should look upon bondage and emancipation as merely illusory and not real.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>सुप्तिप्रबोधयोः सन्धावात्मनो गतिमात्मदृक् । पश्यन् बन्धं च मोक्षं च मायामात्रं न वस्तुतः ॥ ५॥<ref name=":1" />

''suptiprabodhayoḥ sandhāvātmano gatimātmadr̥k । paśyan bandhaṁ ca mokṣaṁ ca māyāmātraṁ na vastutaḥ ॥ 5॥''</blockquote>He should welcome neither death, which is inevitable, nor life that is transitory. But he should simply wait for the time which brings about the birth and death of beings (and that of one's body as well).<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>नाभिनन्देद्ध्रुवं मृत्युमध्रुवं वास्य जीवितम् । कालं परं प्रतीक्षेत भूतानां प्रभवाप्ययम् ॥ ६॥<ref name=":1" />

''nābhinandeddhruvaṁ mr̥tyumadhruvaṁ vāsya jīvitam । kālaṁ paraṁ pratīkṣeta bhūtānāṁ prabhavāpyayam ॥ 6॥''</blockquote>He should not be attached to Shastras dealing with topics other than atman. Nor should he try to maintain himself by following any profession (like astrology, medicine practised by him as a grhastha). He should avoid all form of disputation. He should not persistently adhere to any party.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>नासच्छास्त्रेषु सज्जेत नोपजीवेत जीविकाम् । वादवादांस्त्यजेत्तर्कान् पक्षं कं च न संश्रयेत् ॥ ७॥<ref name=":1" />

''nāsacchāstreṣu sajjeta nopajīveta jīvikām । vādavādāṁstyajettarkān pakṣaṁ kaṁ ca na saṁśrayet ॥ 7॥''</blockquote>He should not attract students. Nor should he study numerous books (lest they should cause confusion or distraction). He should not undertake the exposition of some sacred text (other than those on Vedanta). Nor should he take up the establishment of any institution or monastery.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>न शिष्याननुबध्नीत ग्रन्थान् नैवाभ्यसेद्बहून् । न व्याख्यामुपयुञ्जीत नारम्भानारभेत्क्वचित् ॥ ८॥<ref name=":1" />

''na śiṣyānanubadhnīta granthān naivābhyasedbahūn । na vyākhyāmupayuñjīta nārambhānārabhetkvacit ॥ 8॥''</blockquote>The duties etc. prescribed for the sannyasins are not meant for securing religious merit in the case of the paramahamsas who are of serene and equable minds. (The rules are to be observed till the sanyasi realizes the highest wisdom). Thereafter, he may continue to practise the rules (for setting up an ideal life before the public) or discard them.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>न यतेराश्रमः प्रायो धर्महेतुर्महात्मनः । शान्तस्य समचित्तस्य बिभृयादुत वा त्यजेत् ॥ ९॥<ref name=":1" />

''na yaterāśramaḥ prāyo dharmaheturmahātmanaḥ । śāntasya samacittasya bibhr̥yāduta vā tyajet ॥ 9॥''</blockquote>The Bhagavata Purana further says,<blockquote>अव्यक्तलिङ्गो व्यक्तार्थो मनीष्युन्मत्तबालवत् । कविर्मूकवदात्मानं स दृष्ट्या दर्शयेन्नृणाम् ॥ १०॥<ref name=":1" />

''avyaktaliṅgo vyaktārtho manīṣyunmattabālavat । kavirmūkavadātmānaṁ sa dr̥ṣṭyā darśayennr̥ṇām ॥ 10॥''</blockquote>Meaning: Although a wise person may not expose himself to the vision of human society, by his behaviour his purpose is disclosed. To human society, he should present himself like a restless child, and although he is the greatest thoughtful orator, he should present himself like a dumb man.<ref name=":2" />

In this regard, the Bhagavata Purana enumerates a conversation between Raja Prahlada and the sage Dattatreya.

'''Mahabharata'''

यत्रास्तमितशायी स्यान्निरग्निरनिकेतनः। यथोपलब्धजीवी स्यान्मुनिर्दान्तो जितेन्द्रियः।।12.60.8 (61.8)

निराशीर्निर्नमस्कारो निर्भोगो निर्विकारवान्। विप्रः क्षेमाश्रमं प्राप्तो गच्छत्यक्षरसात्मताम्।। 9<ref name=":6">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-060 Adhyaya 60]</ref>

'''Apastambha Dharmasutra'''

अथ परिव्राजः ७ अत एव ब्रह्मचर्यवान्प्रव्रजति ८ तस्योपदिशन्ति ९ अनग्निरनिकेतः स्यादशर्माशरणो मुनिः स्वाध्यायैवोत्सृजमानो वाचं ग्रामे प्राणवृत्तिं प्रतिलभ्यानिहोऽनमुत्रश्चरेत् १० तस्य मुक्तमाच्छादनं विहितम् ११ सर्वतः परिमोक्षमेके १२ सत्यानृते सुखदुःखे वेदानिमं लोकममुं च परित्यज्यात्मानमन्विच्छेत् १३ बुद्धे क्षेमप्रापणम् १४ तच्छास्त्रैर्विप्रतिषिद्धम् १५ बुद्धे चेत्क्षेमप्रापणमिहैव न दुःखमुपलभेत १६ एतेन परं व्याख्यातम् <ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD-%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF Apastambha Dharmasutra]</ref>

Next, the wandering ascetic. From that very state (ie. from the state of a novice student), remaining chaste, he goes forth. With regard to him they admonish,

He should live as a silent sage, without fire or house, without shelter or protection. Speaking only when he is engaged in the recitation of his Veda and obtaining food from a village to sustain himself, he should live without any concern for this world or the next, he should seek the Self. When he gains insight, he attains bliss. But that is contradicted by the scriptures. If a man attains bliss when he gains insight, moreover, he should not feel pain in this very world. This clarifies what will be said later on.<ref name=":62" />

This exact passage is also quoted in the Hiranyakeshi Shrauta Sutra (27.5.116-126)<ref>Hiranyakeshi Shrautasutra, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AD Prashna 27]</ref>

'''Gautama Dharmasutra'''

१,३.१० अनिचयो भिक्षुः ॥ १,३.११ ऊर्ध्वरेताः ॥ १,३.१२ ध्रुवशीलो वर्षासु ॥ १,३.१३ भिक्षार्थी ग्रामम् इयात् ॥ १,३.१४ जघन्यम् अनिवृत्तं चरेत् ॥ १,३.१५ निवृत्ताशीः ॥ १,३.१६ वाक्चक्षुःकर्मसंयतः ॥ १,३.१७ कौपीनाच्छादनार्थे वासो बिभृयात् ॥ १,३.१८ प्रहीणम् एके निर्णिज्य ॥ १,३.१९ नाविप्रयुक्तम् ओषधिवनस्पतीनाम् अङ्गम् उपाददीत ॥ १,३.२० न द्वितीयाम् अपर्तु रात्रिं ग्रामे वसेत् ॥ १,३.२१ मुण्डः शिखी वा ॥ १,३.२२ वर्जेयेद् बीजवधम् ॥ १,३.२३ समो भूतेषु हिंसानुग्रहयोः ॥ १,३.२४ अनारम्भी ॥<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Gautama Dharmasutra]</ref>

A mendicant shall live without any possessions, be chaste and remain in one place during the rainy season. Let him enter a vilage only to obtain almsfood and go on is begging round late in the evening, without visiting the same house twice and without pronouncing blessings. He shall control his speech, sight and action and wear a garment to cover his private parts using, according to some, a discarded piece of cloth after washing it. He should not pick any part of a plant or a tree unless it has fallen of itself. Outside the rainy season, he should not spend two nights in the same village. He shall be shaven-headed or wear a topknot, refrain from injuring seeds, treat all creatures alike whether they cause him harm or treat him with kindness and not undertake ritual activities.<ref name=":62" />

'''Baudhayana Dharmasutra'''

परिव्राजकः ।परित्यज्य बन्धून् अपरिग्रहः ।प्रव्रजेद् [K: परिव्रजेद् ] यथा-विधि ॥ अरण्यं ।गत्वा ॥ शिखा-मुण्डः ॥ कौपीनाच्छादनाः ॥ वर्षास्व् एकस्थः ॥ काषाय-वासाः ॥ सन्न-मुसले व्यङ्गारे निवृत्त-शराव-संपाते ।भिक्षेत ॥ वाङ्-मनः-कर्म-दण्डैर् भूतानाम् अद्रोही ॥ पवित्रं ।बिभ्रत्[K: बिभृयात् ]_शौच-अर्थम् ॥ उद्धृत-परिपूताभिर् अद्भिर् अप्-कार्यं कुर्वाणः [K: अद्भिः कार्यं कुर्यात् ] ॥ ।अपविध्य वैदिकानि कर्माण्य् उभयतः परिच्छिन्ना मध्यमं पदं ।संश्लिष्यामह इति वदन्तः ॥<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF Baudhayana Dharmasutra]</ref>

A wandering ascetic should wander forth according to the rule, abandoning his relative and free of possessions. Going into the wilderness, he has his head shaven except for the topknot, wears a loin cloth resides in one place during the rainy season and wears ochre clothes. He should go out to beg when the pestle has been set aside, the coals have gone cold, and the plates have been put away (He therefore does not become a burden to the householders and eats their leftovers) without hostility to any creature by violent words, thought or deed carrying a cloth to strain water for use in purification and using water that has been drawn out and properly strained for ablutions and claiming "Rejecting Vedic rites and cutting ourselves off from both sides, we embrace the middle course."<ref name=":62" />

'''Arthashastra'''

The duties of a Parivrajaka (a wandering ascetic) are: complete control over his senses (ie. renouncing the temptation of all sensual pleasures); refraining from all active life; renouncing all possessions; giving up all attachment to worldly ties; living on the charity of the many, never staying in one place for long; living in forests; maintaining inner and outward purity (1.3.12).<ref name=":62" />

==स्त्रीषु व्यवहारः ॥ Behaviour with women==
The Bhagavata Purana explains that so long as by self realization one has not firmly determined that his body, senses or the universe etc. are illusory and the jiva has not attained perfect mastery over himself by identifying himself with the Supreme being, the notion of duality (between a man and a woman) will continue to persist (provoking thereby the desire to enjoy) through false attribution of gunas (Bha.Pur.7.12.10).

Therefore, it says that a person other than a householder, who has taken the great vow of celibacy, should avoid all talk with young women. For, the senses are (by nature) so powerful and violent that they carry away the mind of even a Yati (recluse) who is expected to be perfectly self-controlled (Bha.Pur.7.12.7)<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>कल्पयित्वाऽऽत्मना यावदाभासमिदमीश्वरः । द्वैतं तावन्न विरमेत्ततो ह्यस्य विपर्ययः ॥ १०॥

वर्जयेत्प्रमदागाथामगृहस्थो बृहद्व्रतः । इन्द्रियाणि प्रमाथीनि हरन्त्यपि यतेर्मनः ॥ ७॥<ref name=":4" />

''kalpayitvā<nowiki>''</nowiki>tmanā yāvadābhāsamidamīśvaraḥ । dvaitaṁ tāvanna viramettato hyasya viparyayaḥ ॥ 10॥''

''varjayetpramadāgāthāmagr̥hastho br̥hadvrataḥ । indriyāṇi pramāthīni harantyapi yatermanaḥ ॥ 7॥''</blockquote>Being in control of the mind is emphasized in the life of a Sannyasi. In this regard, the Bhagavata Purana (Skandha 7, Adhyaya 15) says that he who has resolved to subjugate his mind should dissociate himself from all attachments and belongings; he should become a recluse and live alone in secluded place, eating moderately what he gets as alms.<ref>Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare, The Bhagavata Purana (Part III), Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology (Volume 9), Edited by J.L.Shastri, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, P.no.[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.150116/page/n115/mode/2up 985-996].</ref><blockquote>यश्चित्तविजये यत्तः स्यान्निःसङ्गोऽपरिग्रहः | एको विविक्तशरणो भिक्षुर्भैक्ष्यमिताशनः ||३०||<ref>Bhagavata Purana, Skandha 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AB Adhyaya 15].</ref>

''yaścittavijayē yattaḥ syānniḥsaṅgō'parigrahaḥ | ēkō viviktaśaraṇō bhikṣurbhaikṣyamitāśanaḥ ||30||''</blockquote>

== Mahabharata ==

=== Rajadharmanushasana Parva, Shanti Parva ===
प्राहुश्चतुर्थं ब्रह्मणेरितम्।।12.60.2 (61.2)<ref name=":6" />

The fourth ashrama (Sannyasashrama) is upheld only by brahmanas.<ref name=":7">Pandit Ramnarayanadatta Shastri Pandey, Mahabharata (Khanda 5-Shantiparva), Gorakhpur: Gita Press.</ref>

चरितब्रह्मचर्यस्य ब्राह्मणस्य विशांपते। भैक्षचर्यास्वधीकारः प्रशस्तो देहमोक्षणे।।12.60.7(61.7)<ref name=":6" />

The one who has upheld brahmacharya, if such a brahmachari wishes for moksha, then he is bestowed with the authority/eligibility to directly take to Sannyasa following the brahmacharyashrama.<ref name=":7" />

यत्रास्तमितशायी स्यान्निरग्निरनिकेतनः। यथोपलब्धजीवी स्यान्मुनिर्दान्तो जितेन्द्रियः।।12.60.8(61.8)<ref name=":6" />

A Sannyasi should live like a sage by keeping his sense organs and mind under control, not desire for an object, not construct a math or kutir for oneself, always keep wandering and stay wherever one is during sunset and lead life with whatever is obtained by fate.<ref name=":7" />

निराशीर्निर्नमस्कारो निर्भोगो निर्विकारवान्। विप्रः क्षेमाश्रमं प्राप्तो गच्छत्यक्षरसात्मताम्।।12.60.9(61.9)<ref name=":6" />

One should give up wants and greed and treat everyone equally. Should stay away from materialistic enjoyments and never let deflections arise in one's heart. Because of these dharmas Vanaprashthashrama is also known as Kshemashrama (the stage that helps attain prosperity). A brahmana in this ashrama attains oneness with the indestructible brahman.<ref name=":7" />

=== Uma Shankara Samvada, Anushasana Parva, Mahabharata. ===
यतिधर्मास्तथा देवि गृहांस्त्यक्त्वा यतस्ततः। आकिञ्चन्यमनारम्भः सर्वतः शौचमार्जवम्।।13.208.51

सर्वत्र भैक्षचर्या च सर्वत्रैव विवासनम्। सदा ध्यानपरत्वं च देहशुद्धिः क्षमा दया। तत्वानुगतबुद्धित्वं तस्य धर्मविधिर्भवेत्।।13.208.52<ref>Mahabharata, Anushasana Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-13-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-208 Adhyaya 208]</ref>

Yati dharma states that a sannyasi should abandon his house and wander here and there. He should not collect anything for himself. He should stay away from starting or building karmans. He should establish within himself purity and simplicity from all perspectives. He should lead life by bhiksha. He should be detached from all places. He should always be engaged in meditation, be free from doshas, have kshama and daya towards all and always engage his mind in the contemplation of the essence - these are the duties of a Sannyasi.<ref name=":5">Shastri, Ramnarayanadatta Pandey, Mahabharata Volume 6 (With Hindi Translation), Gorakhpur:Gita Press.</ref>

वृक्षमूलचरो नित्यं शून्यागारिनिवेशनमम्।।13.211.56

नदीपुलिनशायी च नदीतीरमनुव्रजन्। विमुक्तः सर्वसङ्गेभ्यः स्नेहबन्धेन वै द्विजः। 13.211.57

आत्मन्येवात्मना भावं समायोज्येह तेन वै।13.211.58<ref>Mahabharata, Anushasana Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-13-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-211 Adhyaya 211]</ref>

A sannyasi dvija being free from all attachments and bonds of love should always live under a tree or empty house or bank of a river and contemplate on the Paramatma in his mind.<ref name=":5" />

== Rights of a Sannyasin ==
Ascetics called by various names in the text viz. Sannyasin, tapasvin, parivrajita, parivrajaka, etc, though often equated with brahmanas, they could have originally belonged to any varna.

Arthashastra quotations

They are allotted forest areas for their meditation and contemplation (2.2.2) but they had to live in harmony, make room for newcomers and not annoy each other (3.16.33-36). Their property could not be claimed as war booty (3.16.28).

Respect was to be shown to them; reviling, hurting or killing one was equated to similar offences against father, mother or teacher (4.11.13,14). Torture of ascetics was prohibited (4.8.19).

They could stay in lodging houses in the city (2.36.5) and take salt free of charge (2.12.38). As in the case of brahmanas, judges could look suo moto into their affairs and not dismiss their suits for want of jurisdiction etc (3.20.22). A wandering monk, pravrajita, could travel free on the ferries with a pass from the appropriate authority (2.28.18).

Since an ascetic had no family, his property passed on to his teacher, pupil, spiritual brother or fellow student (3.16.37). Theft of their property is mentioned as a separate crime meriting a hefty fine (4.10.6).

The wife of a man who became a parivrajita had the same rights of remarriage as if the man had died or gone on long journey (3.4.37). No one could become an ascetic without first providing for his wife and children (2.1.28,29).<ref name=":62" />

== References ==
[[Category:Dharmas]]
<references />

Satyakama Jabala (सत्यकामजाबालः)

2025-10-15T08:52:00Z

Fordharma: added template

{{ToBeEdited}}

Satyakama the son of Jabala (जबाला) addressed his mother and said: "Revered Mother, I wish to become a brahmacharin. Of what gotra am I?"<blockquote>सत्यकामो ह जाबालो जबालां मातरमामन्त्रयाञ्चक्रे ब्रह्मचर्यं भवति विवत्स्यामि किङ्गोत्रोन्वहमस्मीति ॥ १ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>सा हैनमुवाच नाहमेतद्वेद तात यद्गोत्रस्त्वमसि बह्वहं चरन्ती परिचारिणी यौवने त्वामलभे साहमेतन्न वेद यद्गोत्रस्त्वमसि जबाला तु नामाहमस्मि सत्यकामो नाम त्वमसि स सत्यकाम एव जाबालो ब्रवीथा इति ॥ २ ॥ (Chan. Upan. 4.4.1 and 2) </blockquote>She said to him: "I do not know, my child, of what gotra you are. In my youth I was preoccupied with many household duties in your father's house and with attending on guests. I conceived you, and soon after your father left the world. Hence I do not know of what ancestry you are. I am Jabala by name and you are Satyakama. So you may speak of yourself as Satyakama Jaabala (जाबालः) (the son of Jabala).<ref>''Chandogya Upanishad and Shankara Bhashya, Volume 3.'' (Hindi Translation). Gorakhpur: Gita Press (Pages 380-381)</ref>

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Upanishads]]

Good Governance in Mahabharata (महाभारते शासनधर्मः)

2025-10-09T12:44:28Z

Fordharma: added category

==Mahabharata==
In the Shantiparva of the Mahabharata, detailed guidelines are given as to the steps, which are necessary for providing good administration. Addressing Yudhishthira, Bhishmacharya says a Raja should take the following steps for better administration of the state. He says, Yudhishthira, please note that duties of the rulers are,
#To employ good detectives.
#To appoint ambassadors to the states.
#Payment of wages to the employees in time.
#Collection of tax cleverly.
#Not acquiring or confiscating the wealth of the people illegally.
#Collecting good people.
#To be brave.
#To be efficient in doing every work.
#To be truthful.
#Always working for the welfare of the people.
#Repairing or rebuilding old houses and temples.
#To look after those who are poor and afflicted.
#Imposing punishment on the guilty depending upon the facts of the case.
#Not to desert good people.
#Always keeping persons from respectable family around oneself.
#Collecting articles which are worth collecting.
#To serve the wise and knowledgeable individuals.
#To improve the happiness of army personnel by giving reward and by keeping them in good humour.
#To look after the interests of subjects everyday.
#To never feel difficulty in doing one's work and never considering it a burden.
#Enriching the treasury or exchequer.
#Full and perfect security for the Capital city and not depending on others in this behalf.
#Suppressing any groupism against the ruler.
#Not to allow any groupism interse among State Servants.
#To personally inspect the capital.
#Not to depend entirely on anyone.
#Should always follow the rules of Dharma.
#Should always be vigilant and industrious.
#Must be alert about the activities of enemies.
#Desert or extern wicked people and those indulging in heinous crimes.

== Dharma as Supreme Power of the State ==

Perturbed by seeing people who were violating Dharma, Artha and Kama namely Trivarga though it was the best rule for peace and happiness and were causing miseries to themselves and others, Vyasa, expressed his dismay in the following words :-<blockquote>धर्मादर्थश्च कामश्च किमर्थं न सेव्यते ॥</blockquote>Meaning: Why people do not follow Dharma, Artha and kama!

P.V Kane, after elaborate study of Rajaniti Shastra has observed that Dharma was the supreme power in the State and was above the rulers who were only instruments to realize the goal of Dharma (History of Dharma Sastra Vol. III P-240). In other words, Constitution and the law is the ultimate authority and those who exercise sovereign power of the state are penultimate authorities.<ref name=":0">M.Rama Jois (2004), Trivarga, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>

=== '''Greatness of Raja Dharma''' ===
In the Rajadharma Anushasana Parva, while posing his questions, Yudhisthira states that Dharma, Artha and Kama depend on royal duties while the practices that lead to moksha also equally depend on them (ie. the royal duties).<ref>M.N.Dutt (2008), Mahabharata of Vyasa ([https://archive.org/details/XcCb_mahabharata-vol-7-shanti-parva-translation-by-m-n-dutt-parimala-publications-delhi/page/157/mode/1up?view=theater Vol. VII. Shanti Parva]), Delhi: Parimal Publications.</ref>

त्रिवर्गो हि समासक्तो राजधर्मेषु कौरव। मोक्षधर्मश्च विस्पष्टः सकलोऽत्र समाहितः।।12.55.4 (12.56.4)

=== '''Need for Raja Dharma (Governance)''' ===
यथा हि रश्मयोऽश्वस्य द्विरदस्याङ्कुशो यथा। नरेन्द्रधर्मो लोकस्य तथा प्रग्रहणं स्मृतम्।।5

=== '''Attitude of a Raja (Ruler)''' ===
उत्थानेन सदा पुत्र प्रयतेथा युधिष्ठिर। न ह्युत्थानमृते दैवं राज्ञामर्थं प्रसाधयेत्।। 14

साधारणं द्वयं ह्येतद्दैवमुत्थानमेव च। पौरुषं हि परं मन्ये दैवं निश्चित्य मुह्यते।। 15

विपन्ने च समारम्भे सन्तापं मा स्म वै कृथाः। घटेतैवं सदाऽऽत्मानं राज्ञामेष परो नयः।। 16

=== '''Qualities of a Raja (Ruler)''' ===
गुणवाञ्शीलवान्दान्तो मृदुदण्डो जितेन्द्रियः। सुदर्शः स्थूललक्ष्यश्च न भ्रश्येत सदा श्रियः।। 12.55.19 (12.56.19)<ref name=":5">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-055 Adhyaya 55]</ref>

आर्जवेन च संपन्नो धृत्या बुद्ध्या च भारत। धर्मार्थौ प्रतिगृह्णीयात्कामक्रोधौ च वर्जयेत्।। 12.71.6<ref name=":6">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-071 Adhyaya 71]</ref>

=== '''Balance''' ===
मृदुर्हि राजा सततं लङ्घ्यो भवति सर्वशः। तीक्ष्णाच्चोद्विजते लोकस्तस्मादुभयमाचरेत्।। 12.55.21 (12.56.21)

=== '''Greater Good''' ===
यथा हि गर्भिणी हित्वा स्वं प्रियं मनसोऽनुगम्। गर्भस्य हितमाधत्ते तथा राज्ञाऽप्यसंशयम्।। 45

वर्तितव्यं कुरुश्रेष्ठ सदा धर्मानुवर्तिना। स्वं प्रियं तु परित्यज्य यद्यल्लोकहितं भवेत्।। 46<ref name=":5" />

=== '''Protection of the Seven constituents of the Rajya (State) - Raja, friend, treasury, country, fort and army.''' ===
सप्ताङ्गस्य च राज्यस्य विपरीतं य आचरेत्। गुरुर्वा यदि वा मित्रं प्रतिहन्तव्य एव सः।। 12.56.4 (12.57.4)<ref name=":1">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-056 Adhyaya 56]</ref>

राज्ञा सप्तैव रक्ष्याणि तानि चैव निबोध मे। आत्माऽमात्याश्च कोशाश्च दण्डो मित्राणि चैव हि।। 12.68.69 (69.64)<ref name=":4">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-068 Adhyaya 68]</ref>

तथा जनपदाश्चैव पुरं च कुरुनन्दन। एतत्सप्तात्मकं राज्यं परिपाल्यं प्रयत्नतः।। (70) 65

=== '''Eligibility of a Raja (Ruler)''' ===
गुप्तमन्त्रो (आत्मवांश्च) जितक्रोधः शास्त्रार्थकृतनिश्चयः। धर्मे चार्थे च कामे च मोक्षे च सततं रतः।। 12.56.13

त्रय्या संवृतमन्त्रश्च राजा भवितुर्महति। वृजिनं च नरेन्द्राणां नान्यच्चारक्षणात्परम्।। 14

यः सत्करोति ज्ञानानि श्रेयान्परहिते रतः। सतां वर्त्मानुगस्त्यागी स राजा स्वर्गमर्हति।। 38

यस्य चाराश्च मन्त्राश्च नित्यं चैव कृताकृताः। न ज्ञायन्ते हि रिपुभिः स राजा राज्यमर्हति।। 39

=== '''Who is a Praiseworthy Raja (Ruler) ?''' ===
अच्छिद्रदर्शी नृपतिर्नित्यमेव प्रशस्यते। त्रिवर्गे विदितार्थश्च युक्ताचारपथश्च यः।। 17

=== '''Responsibilities of the Raja (Ruler)''' ===
कोशस्योपार्जनरतिर्यमवैश्रवणोपमः। वेत्ता च दशवर्गस्य स्थानवृद्धिक्षयात्मनः।। 12.56.18 (57.18)

अभृतानां भवेद्भर्ता भृतानामन्ववेक्षकः। 19<ref name=":1" />

राजा ह्येवाखिलं लोकं समुदीर्णं समुत्सुकम्। प्रसादयति धर्मेण प्रसाद्य च विराजते।। 12.67.9 (68.9)<ref name=":2">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-067 Adhyaya 67]</ref>

कृपणानाथवृद्धानां विधवानां च योषिताम्। योगक्षेमं च वृत्तिं च नित्यमेव प्रकल्पयेत्।। 12.86.24<ref name=":9">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-086 Adhyaya 86]</ref>

=== '''Behaviour of the Raja (Ruler)''' ===
नृपतिः सुभुखश्च स्यात्स्मितपूर्वाभिभाषिता।। 12.56.19 (57.19)

स्वयं प्रहर्ता दाता च वश्यात्मा वश्यसाधनः। काले दाता च भोक्ता च शुद्धाचारस्तथैव च।। 22

=== '''Raja's aids''' ===
शूरान्भक्तानसंहार्यान्कुले जातानरोगिणः। शिष्टाञ्शिष्टाभिसंबन्धान्मानिनोऽनवमानिनः।। 23

विद्याविदो लोकविदः परलोकान्ववेक्षकान्। धर्मे च निरतान्साधूनचलानचलानिव। 24

सहायान्सततं कुर्याद्राजा भूतिपरिष्कृतान्। तैश्च तुल्यो भवेद्भोगैश्छत्रमात्राज्ञयाऽधिकः।। 25

=== '''Who is a Trustworthy Raja (Ruler) ?''' ===
अक्रोधनो ह्यव्यसनी मृदुदण्डो जितेन्द्रियः। राजा भवति भूतानां विश्वास्यो हिमवानिव।। 29

=== '''Greatest Raja''' ===
प्राज्ञो न्यायगुणोपेतः पररन्ध्रेषु लालसः। सुदर्शः सर्ववर्णानां नयापनयवित्तथा।। 30

क्षिप्रकारी जितक्रोधः सुप्रसादो महामनाः। अरोगप्रकृतिर्युक्तः क्रियावानविकत्थनः।। 31

आरब्धान्येव कार्याणि न पर्यवसितान्यपि। यस्य राज्ञः प्रदृश्यन्ते स राजा राजसत्तमः।। 32

=== '''What should the Raja enforce ?''' ===

==== '''Fearlessness''' ====
पुत्रा इव पितुर्गेहे विषये यस्य मानवाः। निर्भया विचरिष्यन्ति स राजा राजसत्तमः।। 12.56.33 (12.57.33)<ref name=":1" />

स्वेषु धर्मेष्ववस्थाप्यः प्रजाः सर्वा महीपतिः। धर्मेण सर्वकृत्यानि शमनिष्ठानि कारयेत्।। 12.59.21 (60.19)<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-059 Adhyaya 59]</ref>

==== '''Law and Order''' ====
अगूढविभवा यस्य पौरा राष्ट्रनिवासिनः। नयापनयवेत्तारः स राजा राजसत्तमः।। 34

स्वधर्मनिरता यस्य जना विषयवासिनः। असङ्घातरता दान्ताः पाल्यमाना यथाविधि।। 35

वश्या यत्ता विनीताश्च न च सङ्घर्षशीलिनः। विषये दानरुचयो नरा यस्य स पार्थिवः।। 36<ref name=":1" />

=== '''Rajya Raksha Sadhana''' ===
चारश्च प्रणिधिश्चैव काले दानममत्सरः। युक्त्या दानं न चादानमयोगेन युधिष्ठिर।। 12.57.5 (58)

सतां संग्रहणं शौर्यं दाक्ष्यं सत्यं प्रजाहितम्। अनार्जवैरार्जवैश्च शत्रुपक्षाविवर्धनम्।। 6

केतनानां च जीर्णानामवेक्षा चैव सीदताम्। द्विविधस्य च दण्डस्य प्रयोगः कालचोदितः।। 7

साधूनामपरित्यागः कुलीनानां च धारणम्। निचयश्च निचेयानां सेवा बुद्धिमतामपि।। 8

बलानां हर्षणं नित्यं प्रजानामन्ववेक्षणम्। कार्येष्वखेदः कोशस्य तथैव च विवर्धनम्।। 9

पुरगुप्तिरविश्वासः पौरसंघातभेदनम्। अरिमध्यस्थमित्राणां यथावच्चान्ववेक्षणम्।। 10

उपजापश्च भृत्यानामात्मनः पुरदर्शनम्। अविश्वासः स्वयं चैव परस्याश्वासनं तथा।। 11

नीतिवर्त्मानुसारेण नित्यमुत्थानमेव च। रिपूणामनवज्ञानं नित्यं चानार्यवर्जनम्।। 12<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-057 Adhyaya 57]</ref>

=== '''What should a Raja do ?''' ===
वेदानधीत्य धर्मेण राजशास्त्राणि चानघ। संतानादीनि कर्माणि कृत्वा सोमं निषेव्य च।। 12.62.16 (63.16)

पालयित्वा प्रजाः सर्वा धर्मेण वदतांवर। राजसूयाश्वमेधादीन्मखानन्यांस्तथैव च।। 17

आनयित्वा यथान्यायं विप्रेभ्यो दत्तदक्षिणः। संग्रामे विजयं प्राप्य तथाऽल्पं यदि वा बहु।। 18

स्थापयित्वा प्रजापालं पुत्रं राज्ये च पाण्डव। अन्यगोत्रं प्रशस्तं वा क्षत्रियं क्षत्रियर्षभ।। 19

अर्चयित्वा पितॄञ्श्राद्धैः पितृयज्ञैर्यथाविधि। देवान्यज्ञैर्ऋषीन्वेदैरर्चयित्वा तु यत्नतः।। 20

अन्तकाले च संप्राप्ते य इच्छेदाश्रमान्तरम्। सोनुपूर्व्याश्रमान्राजन्गत्वा सिद्धिमवाप्नुयात्।। 21<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-062 Adhyaya 62]</ref>

भूसस्कारं धर्मसंस्कारयोग्यं दीक्षाचर्यां पालनं च प्रजानाम्। विद्याद्राज्ञः सर्वभूतानुकम्पा देहत्यागं चाहवे धर्ममग्र्यम्।। 12.64.2 (65.2)<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-064 Adhyaya 64]</ref>

=== '''Raja's Kshatra Dharma''' ===
आत्मत्यागः सर्वभूतानुकम्पा लोकज्ञानं पालनं मोक्षणं च। विषण्णानां मोक्षणं पीडितानां क्षात्रे धर्मे विद्यते पार्थिवानाम्।। 12.63.26 (64.27)<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-063 Adhyaya 63]</ref>

Raja Dharma

धर्मोच्छ्रिता सत्यजला शीलयष्टिर्दमध्वजा। त्यागवाताध्वगा शीघ्रा नौस्तया सन्तरिष्यति।। 12.65.37 (66.37)<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-065 Adhyaya 65]</ref>

=== '''Need for a Raja''' ===
राजा चेन्न भवेल्लोके पृथिव्या दण्डधारकः। जले मत्स्यानिवाभक्ष्यन्दुर्बलं बलवत्तराः।। 12.66.16 (67.16)<ref name=":3">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-066 Adhyaya 66]</ref>

हरेयुर्बलवन्तोऽपि दुर्बलानां परिग्रहान्। हन्युर्व्यायच्छमानांश्च यदि राजा न पालयेत्।। 12.67.14 (68.14)

यानं वस्त्रमलङ्कारान्रत्नानि विविधानि च। हरेयुः सहसा पापा यदि राजा न पालयेत्।। 16

मातरं पितरं वृद्धमाचार्यमतिथिं गुरुम्। क्लिश्नीयुरपि हिंस्युर्वा यदि राजा न पालयेत्।। 18

हस्ताद्धस्तं परिमुषेद्भिद्येरन्सर्वसेतवः। भयार्तं विद्रवेत्सर्वं यदि राजा न पालयेत्।। 28

Fearlessness - विवृत्य हि यथाकामं गृहद्वाराणि शेरते। मनुष्या रक्षिता राज्ञा समन्तादकुतोभयाः।। 30

स्त्रियश्चापुरुषा मार्गं सर्वालङ्कारभूषिताः। निर्भयाः प्रतिपद्यन्ते यदि रक्षति भूमिपः।। 32

धर्ममेव प्रपद्यन्ते न हिंसन्ति परस्परम्। अनुगृह्णन्ति चान्योन्यं यदा रक्षति भूमिपः।। 33<ref name=":2" />

=== '''Facets of the Raja''' ===
कुरुते पञ्चरूपाणि कालयुक्तानि यः सदा। भवत्यग्निस्तथाऽऽदित्यो मृत्युर्वैश्रवणो यमः।। 12.66.41 (68.41)

यदा ह्यासीदतः पापान्दहत्युग्रेण तेजसा। मिथ्योपचरितो राजा तदा भवति पावकः।। 42

यदा पश्यति चारेण सर्वभूतानि भूमिपः। क्षेमं च कृत्वा व्रजति तदा भवति भास्करः।। 43

अशुचींश्च यदा क्रुद्धः क्षिणोति शतशो नरान्। सपुत्रपौत्रान्सामात्यांस्तदा भवति सोन्तकः।। 44

यदा त्वधार्मिकान्सर्वांस्तीक्ष्णैर्दण्‍डैर्नियच्छति। धार्मिकांश्चानुगृह्णाति भवत्यथ यमस्तदा।। 45

यदा तु धनधाराभिस्तर्पयत्युपकारिणः। आच्छिनत्ति च रत्नानि विविधान्यपकारिणां।। 46

श्रियं ददाति कस्मैचित्कस्माच्चिदपकर्षति। तदा वैश्रवणो राजा लोके भवति भूमिपः।। 47<ref name=":2" />

=== '''Fortification''' ===
न्यसेत गुल्मान्दुर्गेषु सन्धौ च कुरुनन्दन। नगरोपवने चैव पुरोद्याने तथैव च।। 12.68.6 (69.6)

संस्थानेषु च सर्वेषु पुटेषु नगरस्य च। मध्ये च नरशार्दूल तथा राजनिवेशने।। 7

=== '''Appointment of Spies''' ===
प्रणिर्धीश्च ततः कुर्याज्जडान्धबधिराकृतीन्। पुंसः परीक्षितान्प्राज्ञान्क्षुत्पिपासाश्रमक्षमान्।। 12.68.8 (69.8)

=== '''Appointment of Ministers (Mantri)''' ===
विद्वांसः क्षत्रिया वैश्या ब्राह्मणाश्च बहुश्रुताः। दण्डनीतौ तु निष्पन्ना मन्त्रिणः पृथिवीपते।। 12.68.15 (69)<ref name=":4" />

कुलीनाञ्शीलसंपन्नानिङ्गितज्ञाननिष्ठुरान्। देशकालविधानज्ञान्भर्तृकार्यहितैपिणः। नित्यमर्थेषु सर्वेषु राजा कुर्वीत मन्त्रिणः।। 12.83.8

पर्याप्तवचनान्वीरान्प्रतिपत्तिविशारदान्। कुलीनान्सत्वसंपन्नानिङ्गितज्ञाननिष्ठुरान्।। 12.83.23

देशकालविधानज्ञान्भर्तृकार्यहितैषिणः। नित्यमर्थेषु सर्वेषु राजन्कुर्वीत मन्त्रिणः।। 12.83.24<ref name=":7">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-083 Adhyaya 83]</ref>

=== '''Tax and treasury''' ===
आददीत बलिं चापि प्रजाभ्यः कुरुनन्दन। षङ्भागममितप्रज्ञस्तासामेवाभिगुप्तये।। 12.68.27 (69.25)

दशाधर्मगतेभ्यो यद्वसु बह्वल्पमेव वा। तन्नाददीत सहसा पौराणां रक्षणाय वै।। 28 (26)<ref name=":4" />

बलिषष्ठेन शुल्केन दण्डेनाथापराधिनाम्। शास्त्रानीतेन लिप्सेथा वेतनेन धनागमम्।। 12.71.10<ref name=":6" />

विक्रयं क्रयमध्वानं भक्तं च सपरिव्ययम्। योगक्षेमं च संप्रेक्ष्य वणिजां कारयेत्करान्।। 12.87.13

उत्पत्तिं दानवृत्तिं च शिल्पं संप्रेक्ष्य चासकृत्। शिल्पं प्रति करानेवं शिल्पिनः प्रति कारयेत्।। 14

उच्चावचकरन्यायाः पूर्वराज्ञां युधिष्ठिर। यथायथा न सीदेरंस्तथा कुर्यान्महीपतिः।। 15

फलं कर्म च संप्रेक्ष्य ततः सर्वं प्रकल्पयेत्। 16<ref name=":10">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-087 Adhyaya 87]</ref>

=== '''Justice''' ===
यथा पुत्रास्तथा पौरा द्रष्टव्यास्ते न संशयः। भक्तिश्चैषु न कर्तव्या व्यवहारप्रदर्शने।। 12.68.29 (69.27)

श्रोतुं चैव न्यसेद्राजा प्राज्ञान्सर्वार्थदर्शिनः। व्यवहारेषु सततं तत्र राज्यं प्रतिष्ठितम्।। 30 (28)<ref name=":4" />

ततः साक्षिबलं साधु द्वैधवादकृतं भवेत्। असाक्षिकमनाथं वा परीक्ष्यं तद्विशेषतः।। 12.85.19<ref name=":8">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-085 Adhyaya 85]</ref>

Qualification

वेदवेदाङ्गवित्प्राज्ञः सुतपस्वी नृपो भवेत्। दानशीलश्च सततं यज्ञशीलश्च भारत।। 12.68.33 (31)

=== '''Infrastructure''' ===
विशालान्राजमार्गांश्च कारयेत नराधिपः। प्रपाश्च विपणीश्चैव यथोद्देशं समादिशेत्।। 12.68.58 (69.53)<ref name=":4" />

While establishing a city, the Raja must develop the following

भाण्डागारायुधागारं प्रयत्नेनाभिवर्धयेत्। निचयान्वर्धयेत्सर्वांस्तथा यन्त्रकटंकटान्।। 12.86.12<ref name=":9" />

=== '''36 Qualities of a Raja''' ===
चरेद्धर्मानकटुको मुञ्चेत्स्नेहं न चास्तिकः। अनृशंसश्चरेदर्थं चरेत्काममनुद्धतः।। 12.70.3

प्रियं ब्रूयादकृपणः शूरः स्यादविकत्थनः। दाता नापात्रवर्षी स्यात्प्रगल्भः स्यादनिष्ठुरः।। 4

संदधीत न चानार्यैर्विगृह्णीयाच्च शत्रुभिः। नानाप्तैश्चारयेच्चारं कुर्यात्कार्यमपीडया।। 5

अर्थं ब्रूयान्न चासत्सु गुणान्ब्रूयान्न चात्मनः। आदद्यान्न च साधुभ्यो नासत्पुरुषमाश्रयेत्।। 6

नापरीक्ष्य नयेद्दण्डं न च मन्त्रं प्रकाशयेत्। विसृजेन्न च लुब्धेभ्यो विश्वसेन्नापकारिषु।। 7

अनीर्षुर्गुप्तदारः स्याच्चोक्षः स्यादघृणी नृपः। स्त्रियः सेवेत नात्यर्थं मृष्टं भुञ्जीत नाहितम्।। 8

अस्तब्धः पूजयन्मान्यान्गुरून्सेवेदमायया। अर्चेद्देवानदम्भेन श्रियमिच्छेदकृत्सिताम्।। 9

सेवेत प्रणयं हित्वा दक्षः स्यान्न त्वकालवित्। सान्त्वयेन्न च मोक्षाय अनुगृह्णन्न चाक्षिपेत्।। 10

प्रहरेन्न त्वविज्ञाय हत्वा शत्रून्न शोचयेत्। क्रोधं कुर्यान्न चाकस्मान्मृदुः स्यान्नापकारिषु।। 11<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-070 Adhyaya 70]</ref>

=== '''Who should become a Raja ?''' ===
नित्यं यस्तु सतो रक्षेदसतश्च निवर्तयेत्। स एव राजा कर्तव्यस्तेन सर्वमिदं धृतम्।। 12.78.44<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-078 Adhyaya 78]</ref>

=== '''Selection of Amatya''' ===
मेधावी स्मृतिमान्दक्षः प्रकृत्या चानृशंस्यवान्। यो मानितोऽमानितो वा न सन्तुष्येत्कथंचन।। 12.80.23 (22)

ऋत्विग्वा यदि वाऽऽचार्यः सखा वाऽत्यंतसत्कृतः। गृहे वसेदमात्यस्ते स स्यात्परमपूजितः।। 24 (23)

कुलीनः शीलसंपन्नस्तितिक्षुरविकत्थनः। शूरश्चार्यश्च विद्वांश्च प्रतिपत्तिविशारदः।। 29 (28)

एते ह्यमात्याः कर्तव्याः सर्वकर्मस्ववस्थिताः। पूजिताः संबिभक्ताश्च सुसहायाः स्वनुष्ठिताः।। 30 (29)<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-080 Adhyaya 80]</ref>

=== '''Courtiers''' ===
ह्रीनिषेवास्तथा दान्ताः सत्यार्जवसमन्विताः। शक्ताः कथयितुं सम्यक्ते तव स्युः सभासदः।। 12.83.2<ref name=":7" />

=== '''Finance Minister''' ===
एषां वैनयिकी बुद्धिः प्रकृतिश्चैव शोभना। तेजो धैर्यं क्षमा शौचमनुरागः स्थितिर्धृतिः।। 12.83.21

परीक्ष्य च गुणान्नित्यं प्रौढभावान्धुरंधरान्। पञ्चोपधाव्यतीतांश्च कुर्याद्राजाऽर्थकारिणः।। 12.83.22<ref name=":7" />

=== '''Secret counselling''' ===
कृतप्रज्ञश्च मेधावी बुधो जानपदः शुचिः। सर्वकर्मसु यः शुद्धः स मन्त्रं श्रोतुमर्हति।। 12.83.41

ज्ञानविज्ञानसंपन्नः प्रकृतिज्ञः परात्मनोः। सुहृदात्मसमो राज्ञः स मन्त्रं श्रोतुमर्हति।। 42

सत्यवाक्शीलसंपन्नो गन्भीरः सत्रपो मृदुः। पितृपैतामहो यः स्यात्स मन्त्रं श्रोतुमर्हति।। 43

संतुष्टः संमतः सद्भिः शौटीरो द्वेष्यपापकः। मन्त्रवित्कालविच्छूरः स मन्त्रं श्रोतुमर्हति।। 44

पौरजानपदा यस्मिन्विश्वासं धर्मतो गताः। योद्धा नयविपश्चिच्च स मन्त्रं श्रोतुमर्हति।। 46

संविनीयमदक्रोधौ मानमीर्ष्यां च निर्वृताः। नित्यं पञ्चोपधातीतैर्मन्त्रयेत्सह मन्त्रिभिः।। 52<ref name=":7" />

=== '''Mantri Mandal''' ===
चतुरो ब्राह्मणान्वैद्यान्प्रगल्भान्स्नातकाञ्शुचीन्। क्षत्रियान्दश चाष्टौ च बलिनः शस्त्रपाणिनः।। 12.85.7

वैश्यान्वित्तेन संपन्नानेकविंशतिसङ्ख्यया। त्रींश्च शूद्रान्विनीतांश्च शुचीन्कर्मणि पूर्वके।। 8

अष्टाभिश्च गुणैर्युक्तं सूतं पौराणिकं तथा। पञ्चाशद्वर्षवयसं प्रगल्भमनसूयकम्।। 9

श्रुतिस्मृतिसमायुक्तं विनीतं समदर्शिनम्। कार्ये विवदमानानां शक्तमर्थेष्वलोलुपम्।। 10

वर्जितं चैव व्यसनैः सुघोरैः सप्तभिर्भृशम्। अष्टानां मन्त्रिणां मध्ये मन्त्रं राजोपधारयेत्।। 11<ref name=":8" />

=== '''Qualities of an Amatya and Senapati''' ===
धर्मशास्त्रार्थतत्त्वज्ञः सांधिविग्रहिको भवेत्। मतिमान्धृतिमान्ह्रीमान्रहस्यविनिगूहिता।। 12.85.30

कुलीनः सत्वसंपन्नः शुक्लोऽमात्यः प्रशस्यते। एतैरेव गुणैर्युक्तस्तथा सेनापतिर्भवेत्।। 31<ref name=":8" />

Additional specific qualities required in a Senapati

व्यूहयन्त्रायुधानां च तत्त्वज्ञो विक्रमान्वितः। वर्षशीतोष्णवातानां सहिष्णुः पररन्ध्रवित्।। 12.85.32<ref name=":8" />

=== '''Where should a Raja stay ?''' ===
यत्पुरं दुर्गसंपन्नं धान्यायुधसमन्वितम्। दृढप्राकारपरिखं हस्त्यश्वरथसंकुलम्।। 12.86.6

विद्वांसः शिल्पिनो यत्र निचयाश्च सुसंचिताः। धार्मिकश्च जनो यत्र दाक्ष्यमुत्तममास्थितः।। 7

ऊर्जस्विनरनागाश्वं चत्वरापणशोभितम्। प्रसिद्धव्यवहारं च प्रशान्तमकुतोभयम्।। 8

सुप्रभं सानुनादं च सुप्रशस्तनिवेशनम्। शूराढ्यं प्राज्ञसंपूर्णं ब्रह्मघोषानुनादितम्।। 9

समाजोत्सवसंपन्नं सदापूजितदैवतम्। वश्यामात्यबलो राजा तत्पुरं स्वयमाविशेत्।। 10<ref name=":9" />

=== '''A Raja must protect''' ===
आशयाश्चोदपानाश्च प्रभूतसलिलाकराः। निरोद्धव्याः सदा राज्ञा क्षीरिणश्च महीरुहाः।। 12.86.15<ref name=":9" />

=== '''Governance principles''' ===
बाह्यमाभ्यन्तरं चैव पौरजानपदं तथा। चारैः सुविदितं कृत्वा ततः कर्म प्रयोजयेत्।। 12.86.19

चरान्मन्त्रं च कोशं च दण्डं चैव विशेषतः। अनुतिष्ठेत्स्वयं राजा सर्वं ह्यत्र प्रतिष्ठितम्।। 20<ref name=":9" />

ग्रामस्याधिपतिः कार्यो दशग्रामपतिस्तथा। विंशतित्रिंशतीशं च सहस्रस्य च कारयेत्।। 12.87.3

ग्रामेयान्ग्रामदोषांश्च ग्रामिकः प्रतिभावेयेत्। तानाचक्षीत दशिने दशिको विंशिने पुनः।। 4

विंशाधिपस्तु तत्सर्वं वृत्तं जानपदे जने। ग्रामाणां शतपालाय सर्वमेव निवेदयेत्।। 5

यानि ग्राम्याणि भोज्यानि ग्रामिकस्तान्युपाश्निया। दशपस्तेन भर्तव्यस्तेनापि द्विगुणाधिपः।। 6

ग्रामं ग्रामशताध्यक्षो भोक्तुमर्हति सत्कुरः। महान्तं भरतश्रेष्ठ सुस्फीतं जनसंकुलम्। तत्र ह्यनेकपायत्तं राज्ञो भवति भारत।। 7

शाखानगरमर्हस्तु सहस्रपतिरुत्तमः। धान्यहैरण्यभोगेन भोक्तुं राष्ट्रीयसंगतः।। 8

तेषां संग्रामकृत्यं स्याद्वामकृत्यं च तेषु यत्। धर्मज्ञः सचिवः कश्चित्तत्तत्पश्येदतन्द्रितः।। 9<ref name=":10" />

=== '''Self introspection / Self-evaluation''' ===
किं छिद्रं कोनु सङ्गो मे किंवाऽस्त्यविनिपातितम्। कुतो मामाश्रयेद्दोष इति नित्यं विचिन्तयेत्।। 12.89.14<ref>Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-089 Adhyaya 89]</ref>

=== '''What constitutes Raja Dharma ?''' ===
संविभज्य यदा भुङ्क्ते नचान्यानवमन्यते। निहन्ति बलिनं दृप्तं स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 12.91.31

त्रायते हि यदा सर्वं वाचा कायेन कर्मणा। पुत्रस्यापि न मृष्येच्च स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 32

संविभज्य यदा भुङ्क्ते नृपतिर्दुर्बलान्नरान्। तदा भवन्ति बलिनः स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 33

यदा रक्षति राष्ट्राणि यदा दस्यूनपोहति। यदा जयति संग्रामे स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 34

पापमाचरतो यत्र कर्मणा व्याहृतेन वा। प्रियस्यापि न मृष्येत स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 35

यदा सारणिकान्राजा पुत्रवत्परिरक्षति। भिनत्ति न च मर्यादां स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 36

यदाप्तदक्षिणैर्यज्ञैर्यजते श्रद्धयाऽन्वितः। कामद्वेषावनादृत्य स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 37

कृपणानाथवृद्धानां यदाऽश्रु परिमार्जति। हर्षं संजनयन्नॄणां स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 38

विवर्धयति मित्राणि तथाऽरींश्चापि कर्षति। संपूजयति साधूंश्च स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 39

सत्यं पालयति प्रीत्या नित्यं भूमिं प्रयच्छति। पूजयेदतिथीन्भृत्यान्स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 40

ऋत्विक्पुरोहिताचार्यान्सत्कृत्यानवमत्य च। यदा सम्यक्प्रगृह्णाति स राज्ञो धर्म उच्यते।। 43<ref name=":11">Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-12-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5-091 Adhyaya 91]</ref>

=== '''Aishwarya vardhaka Sadhana''' ===
त्यजन्ति दारान्पुत्रांश्च मनुष्याः परिपूजिताः। संग्रहश्चैव भूतानां दानं च मधुरा च वाक्।। 12.91.53

अप्रमादश्च शौचं च राज्ञो भूतिकरं महत्। एतेभ्यश्चैव मान्धातः सततं मा प्रमादिथाः।। 54<ref name=":11" />

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Ancient Indian Polity]]

Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)

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{{ToBeEdited}}The '''Atharvaveda''' (Samskrit: अथर्ववेदः)
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==व्युत्पत्तिः नामाभिधानं च ॥ Etymology and nomenclature==
==शाखाः ॥ Recensions==
The Caraṇavyuha, a later era Sanskrit text, states that the Atharvaveda had nine [[shakha]]s, or schools: paippalāda, stauda, mauda, śaunakīya, jājala ,jalada ,brahmavada, devadarśa and cāraṇavaidyā.<ref name="brmodak15">BR Modak (1993), The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-Veda, Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, ISBN 9788121506076, pages 15 (footnote 8), 393-394</ref>
===Organization===
The ''Srautasutra'' texts Vaitāna Sūtra and the Kauśika Sūtra are attached to the Atharvaveda Shaunaka edition, as are a supplement of Atharvan ''Prayascitthas'', two ''Pratishakhyas'', and a collection of ''Parisisthas''.<ref>SS Bahulkar (2003), Samskararatnamala: An Atharvanic Prayoga, in ''Pramodasindhu'' (Editors: Kalyan Kale et al, Professor Pramod Ganesh Lalye’s 75th Birthday Felicitation Volume), Mansanman Prakashan, pages 28–35</ref>
==Contents==
The contents of the Atharvaveda contrasts with the other Vedas.
===Samhita===
====Surgical and medical speculations====
Atharvaveda 4.15
====Charms against fever, jaundice and diseases====
Atharvaveda 5.21
====Remedy from medicinal herbs====
Atharvaveda 8.7
====Spells and prayers to gain a lover, husband====
The contents of Atharvaveda have been studied to glean information about the social and cultural mores in Vedic era of India.<ref>Rajbali Pandey (1969), Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120803961, pages 162-163, Chapter 8</ref>

Atharvaveda 2.36
====Speculations on the nature of man, life, good and evil====
Atharvaveda 10.2.4 - 10.2.14
====Prayer for peace====
Some hymns are prayer qua prayer, desiring harmony and peace. For example,

Atharvaveda 7.52
===Brahmana===
===Upanishads===
====Mundaka Upanishad====
====Mandukya Upanishad====
====Prashna Upanishad====
==Manuscripts and translations==
==Influence==
===Medicine and health care===
Khare and Katiyar state that the Bharat's tradition directly links Ayurveda to Atharvaveda.<ref>CP Khare and CK Katiyar (2012), The Modern Ayurveda, CRC Press, ISBN 978-1439896327, page 8</ref>
===Literature===
The verse 11.7.24 of Atharvaveda contains the oldest known mention of the Indic literary genre the [[Purana]]s.
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
<references />
[[Category:Vedas]]

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

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Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

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Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

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Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

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Rasayana Shastra (रसायनशास्त्रम्)

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Rasayana Shastra (Samskrit: रसायनशास्त्रम्) referred to the subject of Chemistry based on the chemical activities involved in biological and inorganic processes. It was also called Rasatantra, Rasa Kriya or Rasa Vidya roughly translating to 'Science of Liquids'. "Rasa" in ayurvedic terminology refers to mercury and [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] exclusively deals with the treatment using mercury and its compounds. It is well known that science and technology in ancient and medieval India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science and surgery etc.

Chemistry is the study of elements present in the universe which involves the nature of the elements, their occurrence, their physical and chemical properties, their compounds, reactivity, uses and applications. Ancient samskrit literary works supported by the archaeological excavations all over the nation have proved the development of this science as early as the vedic period. The earliest evidence of chemical knowledge possessed by the ancient Indians in the prehistoric age has been brought to light by the findings of archaeological excavations in Baluchistan, Sindh and Punjab. The ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization that have been unearthed at in these areas furnish much information about the chemical knowledge acquired by the Indus Valley people, particularly with reference to the practical arts like pottery, brick-making, and extraction and working of metals.<ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref>

The findings testify to the facts that the people in the remote ages were acquainted with the art of making painted potteries as well as with the preparation and working of metallic copper. Prafulla Chandra Ray was a renowned researcher of chemistry, who set up several chemical industries in Bengal and is regarded as the "Father of Indian Chemistry" in modern times.

One must bear in mind that it is not just India, but several cultures, including non-western cultures around the world that have made several interesting innovations in the fields of chemistry and other subjects. However the present matter pertains to progress of Bharat in several areas of shastras and hence the attention is to bring such lesser known events to readers' knowledge.

== Introduction ==
[[File:First Pottery Images.png|thumb|406.25x406.25px|Images of Pottery. Courtesy: Dr. Michel Danino]]
Chemistry in ancient India, had its origin revealed through the great works of our ancient seers can be attributed to three major areas<ref name=":1" />
* intellectual speculation about the nature and composition of matter (Alchemy)
* development of practical arts to meet the demand for the necessities of life (Dyes, Fermentation)
* self preservation and welfare measures of the society (Ayurvedic preparation)
Ancient India's contribution to science and technology include principles of chemistry which did not remain abstract but found expression in practical activities like fermentation processes, distillation of perfumes, aromatic liquids, manufacturing of dyes and pigments and extraction of sugar, extraction of oil from oilseeds, and metallurgy which has remained an activity central to all civilizations from the earliest ages. Archaeologists' findings of the Indus valley civilization showed a well developed urban system with public baths, streets, granaries, temples, houses with baked bricks, mass production of pottery and even a script of their own which depicted the story of early chemistry.<ref name=":0">Purwar, Chhavi. ''[https://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issue-pdf/7278.pdf Significant Contribution of Chemistry in Ancient Indian Science and Technology.]'' International Journal of Development Research Vol. 06, Issue, 12, pp.10784-10788, December, 2016</ref>

In pottery making chemical processes were carried out in which materials were mixed, fired and moulded to achieve their objective. In the Rajasthan desert many pottery pieces of different shapes, sizes and colours were found. At Mohenjo-Daro it was found that for the construction of a well, gypsum cement had been used which contained clay, lime, sand and traces of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and was light grey in colour. Burnt bricks were manufactured on a large scale for making houses drains, boundary walls, public bath etc. Many useful products invented were plasters, hair washes, medicinal preparations etc. which had a number of minerals in them and were used by Indus Valley people.

Copper utensils, iron, seals, gold and silver ornaments, and terracotta discs and painted grey ware pottery have all been found in thirty five archaeological sites in North India. Scientific dating of these artifacts corresponds to the non-aryan invasion model of Indian antiquity.<ref name=":0" />

Thus the major chemical products that developed gradually over various eras can be summarized as glass, bricks and pottery, paper, soap, ink, dyeing, cosmetics and perfumes, alcoholic beverages, food processing, pharmaceuticals, mining techniques and alloy preparations, gun powder and saltpetre, and oilseeds. The practical chemists—potters, brewers, dyers, metalsmiths, glassmakers and the like—contributed a great deal to the growth of technology and in no small measure to the economic welfare of the ancient communities. They were noted for their craftsmanship and experimental skills involving many a chemical transformation both qualitative and quantitative, even though they did not appear to have formulated any theoretical knowledge of the chemical transformations.<ref name=":8">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 274</ref>

== Alchemical Ideas in the Vedas ==
Rigveda mentions the Asvini devatas, the divine physicians, who when invoked gave sight to the blind and made the lame walk, restoring people to good health. The Vedas mention many plants, herbs, minerals and metals as the sources of healing powers, used for treating ailments though their potencies are not described. A Rigveda sukta (1.162) gives an account of the bronze cauldron. Gold was used for ornaments like anklets, rings, etc. Mention of metal vessels, tools and armour, seals made mainly of copper, bronze, affords evidence of the knowledge of metal working.<ref name=":1" /> According to Rigveda, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton was practiced during this period. References are found in the Rigveda about the preparation of tanning of leather and hides for use as slings, bead strings, reins and whips.<ref name=":1" />

There are ample references of a number of fermented drinks. Soma, the rasa (juice) is a fermented juice from the stems of soma plant regarded as the Amrita, is said to heal all ailments and bestow immortality. Among fermented liquors, there is a mention of madhu, a drink supplied at feasts, and sura, another drink probably a kind of beer brewed from barley grain. Curds or fermented milk constituted an important item of diet. Clothes were mainly made of wool and the garments were often dyed red, purple and brown; people demonstrated their acquaintance with the art of dyeing with natural vegetable coloring material.<ref name=":1" />

Yajurveda clearly mentions six metals<ref name=":1" /> - Ayas (gold), Hiranya (silver), Loha (copper), Shyama (iron), Sisa (lead), Trapu (tin). Atharvaveda names Harita (yellow) as gold, Rajata (white) as silver and Lohita (red) as copper.

Plants and herbs were worshipped for their healing powers. The Atharvaveda mentions the suktas for the cure of diseases and possession by demons of disease are known as "bhaishajyani,' while those which have for their object the securing of long life and health are known as "ayushyani," a term which later on gave place to '''rasayana''', the Sanskrit equivalent of alchemy.<ref>Ray, P. C. (1903). ''A History of Hindu Chemistry: From the earliest times to the middle of the sixteenth century A. D.'' (2nd ed., Vol. 1). The Bengal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Works Limited. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.39319/mode/2up</nowiki></ref> While the term itself does not mean chemistry, a study of history of chemistry through the Vedic, Darshana, Tantric and Ayurvedic textual studies reveals the relationship of alchemy and modern day chemistry to the understanding of Rasayana shastra as variously described in ancient texts. Alchemy in India was variously called [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]], Rasavidya; the word rasa has many meanings, such as essence, taste, sap, juice or semen, but in this context refers to mercury, seen as one of the most important elements.

== Origin and Properties of Matter ==
Chemistry dealt primarily with the composition and changes of matter and the underlying principles were deduced in a systematic and logical way purely based on thoughts with little or no experimental proofs. Yet many such theories, the products of intellectual perfection and sublime intuition, stand in good comparison with some of the most recent and advanced scientific ideas of the present time. Chemistry involves the study of fundamental properties of matter and atoms, and their inter-relationships. The Ayurvedic period constitutes the most flourishing and fruitful age of ancient India relating to the accumulation and development of chemical sciences which at that time was closely associated with medicine. The physical and chemical theories were intricately associated with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|srshti siddhantas]] propounded in the vedic, upanishadic and darshana shastras. Ayurveda was founded on the theories of cosmic evolution in [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Darshanas]] most importantly of Samkhya and Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" />

=== Cosmogenesis ===
The Vedas take the universe to be inﬁnite in size. The universe was visualized in the image of the cosmic egg, Brahmanda. Beyond our own universe lie other universes. Here we come across a few ancient concepts with particular reference to srshti (theories of cosmogenesis) and origin of jagat (universe) with respect to matter and particles and their connection with chemistry.
* Rig veda (10.121.1) mentions Hiranyagarbha reflecting the concept of cosmic egg and origin of universe from an egg.
* Satapatha Brahmana (6.1.3.1-5) propounded a theory of material evolution.<ref name=":2" />
* Chandogya Upanishad mentions about expansion of universe from an embryonic stage called "Anda" (Chan. Upan. 3.19) wherein after period of one year, it burst open into two halves, one of silver and the other of gold. The lower half of silver became earth and the golden half became the sky and higher regions.
* Katha Upanisad (1.2.20) mentioned atoms and molecules.<ref name=":2" />
* Samkhya siddhanta (supported by Yoga sutras of Patanjali) describes the principles of conservation, transformation and dissipation of energy. Additionally the conception of space (desha) and time (Kala) are also discussed.
* Vaiseshika siddhanta propounded the particulate theory of matter ([[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas)]] to describe the nature of different substances that make up this jagat.
* Prasastapada had proposed in his Padartha-dharma-sarhgraha that atoms (anu) form - through dyads (dvyanuka) and triads, (tryanuka), gross bodies (`molecules' in modern terminology) and 'this gives rise to different qualities in a substance'.<ref name=":2">''[http://eprints.nmlindia.org/5802/1/1-24.PDF Minerals and Their Exploitation in Ancient and Pre-modern India]'' by Prof. A. K. Biswas</ref>
Thus broadly the origin and composition of matter had the foundations in our ancient texts.

==== Samkhya-Patanjala Yoga View of Cosmic Evolution ====
P. C. Ray in the History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India<ref name=":1" /> briefly discusses the Indian theories of evolution and their relation to modern concepts of matter and energy. Samkhya-Yoga schools of thought, according to him, describe cosmogony as based on the principles of conservation, transformation and dissipation of energy and the conception of space (desha) and time (kala). Universe, according to Samkhya, evolved out of an unmanifested cosmic nature termed Prakriti or Avyakta, the ultimate ground. It is believed to be made of infinitesimal reals or gunas, representing substantive entities. They are classified under three heads

- sattva - the essence or intelligent matter

- rajas - the energy

- tamas - the inertia or material substance

These three gunas exist together in equilibrium or uniform diffusion in the infinite continuum, Prakriti. Samkhya attributes the character of both quantum (parichhinatva) and continuity or extension (pariman) to both energy and matter similar to modern concepts. Prakriti is in a state of perfect equipoise with all its gunas in equilibrium representing evolution under arrest. A disturbance of this equilibrium through transcendental or magnetic influence exerted by Purusha (the Absolute) on the Avaykta sets the evolutionary process in motion. The disturbance of the original equilibrium in Prakriti led to an unequal aggregation or collection of gunas representing a creative transformation accompanied by evolution of motion (parispanda) according to a universal definite law. Cosmic evolution is two-fold creative as well as destructive, dissimulative and assimilative, catabolic and anabolic in nature. Samkhya principles also show concurrence with the laws of causation, conservation of mass and energy as well as their transformations.
[[File:Golden cosmic egg Hiranyagarbha by Manaku.jpg|thumb|The Golden Cosmic Egg - Hiranyagarbha]]

==== Cosmic Evolution View in Upanishads ====
According to this theory, the universe existed in the beginning in a highly refined or potential form like a seed or an embryo with grosser form of apa (water) forming an egg. The egg after a period of maturation broke into two pieces giving rise to the celestial and earthly worlds.<ref name=":1" />

Hiranyagarbha signifies the 'golden womb' or source of creation. Described as the cosmic entity it represents the potential and creative force behind worldly existence. Hiranyagarbha is the Prana, the vital force, the first manifestation as per Chandogya Upanishad. The whole cosmos is governed and activated by Prana.<ref>''Chandogya Upanisad'' (S. Lokeswarananda, Trans.). (1995). Sri Ramakrishna Math.</ref>
=== Atomistic Conception of Matter ===
{{Main article|Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)}}
Important concepts of physics and chemistry studied in modern times were proposed discussed and debated in ancient times primarily in [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] and [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]] darshanas. Most notably enumeration of all knowable or sensorial objects called [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] are categorized and their attributes are described in [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]], [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]]-[[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]], darshanas and in [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Ayurveda]] samhitas.

=== Elemental nature of Matter ===
The Samkhya theory posits that the world is a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Prakriti, and one becoming many. The Vaiseshika darshana propounds that the world arises out of atoms combining together in various ways, i.e., many becoming one.

According to the Samkhya school's theory of matter,<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> '''tanmatras''' are five subtle elements or infra-atomic particles imperceptible to the human senses as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation of gunas from Prakriti as explained above during evolution. These subsequently gave rise, by the same process, to five grosser elements - the Panchamahabhutas namely, akasa (space or ether), vayu (air), tejas (fire), apa (water), and bhumi (earth). They are regarded as representing five abstract principles, or rather a classification of substances on the basis of their properties and states of aggregation. Earth, water and air may be viewed as comprising all the so-called elements or compounds of chemistry.
* Bhumi or kshiti typifies all solids
* Apa typifies all liquids
* Vayu typifies all gases
According to Samkhya, atoms (Anu-s) of these grosses elements are composite units made up of infra-atomic particles, the tanmatras.
== Chemistry in Ancient India ==
In ancient India, chemistry served medicine on one hand - in the preparation of a number of medicines—and technology on the other—for preparing colors, steels, cements, spirits, etc. While knowledge of metals and oxides was prevalent, of the metallic medicines, mercury was particularly popular. In Rigveda there is a mention of gold, silver, copper, bronze among metals or metallic objects.<ref name=":1" /> The Ramayana and the Mahabharata mention weapons with arrowheads coated with a variety of chemicals, indicating their knowledge of Alchemy. Various chemical processes generally described in the ancient treatises are those of extraction, purification, tempering, calcination, powdering, liquefying, precipitation, washing, drying, steaming, melting, filing, etc. Later, all these processes were applied to various metals, using special apparatuses or yantras and reagents and heating to different degrees—high, average and low.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, D. (1982). ''Studies in the history of science in India'' (Vol. 1). Editorial Enterprises.</ref> Chemistry was vigorously pursued in India during the Mahayana phase of activity of Buddhism as seen from the text Rasaratnakara ascribed to Acharya Nagarjuna.

=== Classification of Chemical Substances ===
The well-known rasashastra texts like the Rasahrdaya, the Rasarnava, the Rasaratnasamuccaya and the Rasaprakasasudhakara have classified the chemical substances into<ref>Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 322-326</ref>

# '''Maharasas''': They are a group of minerals which have been recognized as most useful for the potentiation of the rasa namely [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)|Mercury or Parada]].<ref name=":9">Bhagwat, V. S. R., Kurkute, B. R., Shinde, B. T., & Tapare, S. K. (2017). CLASSIFICATION OF RASADRAVYAS IN RASASHASTRA. ''World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research'', ''6''(4), 792–802. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.20959/wjpr20174-8226</nowiki></ref> They are eight in number, Abhraka (Mica; Double silicate of aluminium and Potassium or sodium), Vaikranta (Tourmaline; K2OAl2O36SiO2), Makshika (Chalcopyrite/Copper pyrite; Cu2S, Fe2S3), Vimala (Iron pyrite; Fe2S3), Shilajatu (Black bitumen or mineral pitch), Sasyaka (Copper sulphate/blue vitriol; CuSO4 7H2O), Rasaka (Zinc ore; ZnO, ZnS, ZnCO3), Chapala (Bismuth/selenium).
# '''Uparasa''': These drugs are not equivalent to Parada, but properties of this group of drugs possess less gunas than Parada and indicate usefulness in different procedures of parada or its action towards parada.<ref name=":10">G. T., C., Geethesh, R. R., & Angadi, R. (2018). Collocation Of Rasa Dravyas – An Exploration. ''International Ayurvedic Medical Journal'', ''6''(9), 2102–2108. <nowiki>http://www.iamj.in/posts/images/upload/2102_2108.pdf</nowiki></ref> The eight uparasas are: Gandhaka (Sulphur; S), Gairika (Ochre; Fe2O3), Kasisa (Ferrous sulphate/ green vitriol; FeSO47H2O), Kankshi (Potash alum; K2SO4 Al2(SO)324H2O), Haratala (Orpiment, yellow arsenic; As2S3), Manahshila (Realgar; As2S2), Anjana (Collyrium), Kankushta (Gambose tree extract).
# '''Dhatu''': Dhatus are the drugs which are been extracted (removed forcedly) from their ore, (by melting or process of distillation) similarly the diseases are removed forcedly from the body by them so they are called as Loha.<ref name=":9" /> Here usually seven metals are named: svarna (gold), rajata or tara (silver), tamra (copper), loha (iron), naga (lead), vanga (tin) and yasada (zinc). But, the three alloys (misraloha), viz. brass (pittala), bell-metal (kamsya) and a mixture of five metals (vartaka), also come under the category of dhatu. There are textual differences of which metals comprise metals. Rasarnava mentions six metals including copper but Rasaratnasamuccaya not according a place to copper among the dhatus.
# '''Ratna''': The ratnas generally are precious gems. They are of mineral & animal origin which are found in rocks and are formed during the crust formation of the earth. They are durable, colorful & rare and the most valuable entity.<ref name=":10" /> These are classified on the basis of; structure, relation to the planets, opacity & transparency, beauty and scarcity. The principal gems used by the rasavadins are: vaikranta (also classed under maharasa), suryakanta (sun-stone; aventurine feldspar mainly containing silicate of sodium and potassium with disseminated particles of red iron oxide which cause fire-like flashes of colour), candrakanta (moon-stone; a type of feldspar containing silicates of aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, etc., which possesses a bluish pearly opalescence), hiraka (diamond), mauktika (pearl), garudodgara (emerald), rajavarta (lapis lazuli), marakata (topaz), nila (sapphire) and padmaraga (ruby).
# '''Visha:''' Rasarnava appears to be the first text to mention about Visha and Upavisa classification. They are useful in rasakarma and rasabandhana. Rasamanjari, Rasendrachintamani, Rasa jala nidhi have explained 18 kanda visha. They are- Kalakuta, Saktuka, Vatsanabha, Shringika, Mustaka, Halahala, Haridra, Mayura, Binduka, Sunama, Shankhanabha, Sumangala, Pushkara, Bhramara, Karkotaka, Shuklakanda, Raktashringi, Visha or Chakra.<ref name=":10" />
# '''Sadharana rasas''': It is explained only by Rasaratnasamuchaya.<ref name=":9" /> They are Kampillaka (Mallotus philippinesis Muell-arg), Gouripashana (Arsenious oxide; As2O3), Navasadara (Ammonium chloride; NH2Cl), Kapardika (Cowries), Agnijara (Amber), Girisindura (Red oxide of mercury; HgO), Hingula (Cinnabar; HgS), Mruddarashringa (Litharge; PbO).<ref name=":10" />

According to tradition, the maharasas and the uparasas are classified in the order in which they find their usefulness with reference to mercury (rasendra). There is also a view that mercury alone has the appellation of rasa, and all the others are called uparasas. Some of the texts differ from one another in the number of maha- and uparasas as well as the substances comprising them. While the Rasaratnasamuccaya gives the above classification, the Rasaprakasasudhakara, considers rajavarta (lapis lazuli) as a maharasa in the place of capala.

=== Yantras ===
Many Rasashastra texts carefully spell out the layout of the laboratory, with four doors, an esoteric symbol (RASALINGA) in the east, furnaces in the southeast, instruments in the northwest, etc termed as Rasashala.

== Traditional Chemical Practices in India ==
The industries which sustained on chemical process may be classified broadly under the following headings.<ref>Danino. Michel, [https://www.academia.edu/23305766/Technology_in_Ancient_India_-_Michel_Danino Technology in Ancient India]</ref>
# Ayurvedic Preparations: medical preparations including purificatory processes of mercurial compounds involved chemical reactions and apparatuses are discussed in [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] and [[Rasayana (रसायनम्)|Rasayana]].
# Chemical arts and crafts: they include the following
##'''Pottery''': Involves prolonged heating, fusion, evaporation, and treatment of minerals and pigments for coloring and art.
## '''Bead and Glass making''': Glass is a solid fused mixture of lime, alkali, sand and metallic oxides. They were coloured by adding colouring agents like metal oxides. The Ramayana, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Brihatsamhita mention glass being used. Evidences of glass slag and glazing are found in Hastinapur, Takshila, Nevasa Kolhapur, Maheshwar and Paunar.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Jewellery making'''
## '''Dyeing''': Numerous dyes from vegetable and mineral sources, use of mordants for textiles, craft paints which are relevant both in [[Textile Technology (तन्तुकार्यम्)|textile industry]] and [[Chitrakarma (चित्रकर्म)|chitrakarma]] or art of painting. The principal dyeing materials were turmeric madder, sunflower orpiment, cochineal, lac and kermes. Some other substance having tinting properties were Kampillaka, Pattanga and Jatuka. [[Chemistry of Dyeing (रञ्जनम्)|Chemistry of dyeing]] was well developed with the identification of acidic and basic natures of dyes and use of mordants especially for textiles.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Cosmetics and perfumes''': Brhatsamhita mentions a large number of references to cosmetics and perfumes used in worship and for human enjoyment. The Bower Manuscript (Navanitaka) contained recipes of hair dyes which consisted of a number of plants like indigo and minerals like iron powder, black iron or steel and acidic extracts of sour rice gruel. Gandhayukti gave recipes for making scents, mouth perfumes, bath powders, incense and talcum powder.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Paper and Ink industry''': In ancient India knowledge spread verbally through the word of mouth from the teacher to the disciple, hence it was called Shruti. But with the discovery of scripts, written records gradually replaced the verbal transmission of thought.<ref>Tiwari, L. (n.d.). ''History of paper technology in India''.</ref> Paper, as a writing material, was hardly known in India before the 11th century AD. Al-Biruni writes, "it was in China that paper was first manufactured, Chinese prisoners introduced the fabrication of paper in Samarkand, and thereupon it was made in various places, so as to meet the existing want".
## '''Fermentation technology''': Approximately 610 Mantras of ninth Maṇḍala of Ṛgveda says that they were preparing drinks like Soma (Ṛgveda-1.116.7& 10.119.3) by the process of fermentation and the same was used in several religions ceremonies and social gatherings.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref> Barks of plants, stem, flower, leaves, woods, cereals, fruits and sugarcane were some of the sources for making these liquors.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Building materials''': Mortar and Cement using limestone, gypsum and their modified forms are mentioned as the building materials used in ancient times.
## '''Tanning of leather:'''
# [[Mineralogy (धातुशास्त्रम्)]] or the study of Minerals, broadly involves mining of metal ores such as those of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc and iron and preparation of alloys such as bronze, and brass. A very comprehensive account of ores, minerals and metals with their extraction and working, their alloys is found in the Arthashastra. There was wide usage of metals for ornaments, utensils, warfare weaponry, coinage, and preparation of medicines.

== Chemical Arts and Crafts ==

=== Dyes, Mordants and Pigments ===
{{Main article|Chemistry of Dyeing (रञ्जनम्)}}
Archeological and literary evidences prove that the art of dyeing was practiced since early days of Indian civilization. A dye is a colored substance which imparts more or less permanent color to other materials. Colored substances usually organic chemical compounds were used for textile dyeing. Dyes which are prepared in the form of powder, paste or solution are utilized generally in coloring cotton, wool, silk and cloth of natural fibres, in cosmetics and manufacture of ink etc. Many soluble dyes are converted into pigments by forming insoluble salts (ex - by replacing sodium in a dye salt with calcium) for use in lacquers, paints etc. Dyes were also used for artificial coloring of food items and soft drinks. They are also used for coloring hair, fur, metals etc.

=== Glass Industry ===
{{Main article|Glass (काचः)}}

Generally, glass is produced by melting a mixture of silica (sand: about 75%), soda (about 15%) and calcium compound (lime: about 10%) with the desired metallic oxides that serve as coloring agents.<ref>Story of Glass in India & the World by Pankaj Goyal</ref> Origin of glass is shrouded in mystery and scholars note that it is difficult to pinpoint the exact period. Modern archeological evidence proved that Mesapotamia, Egypt and India made various siliceous and glazed materials including faience (glazed siliceous ware), glazed pottery and glass.<ref name=":8" />

=== Fermentation Technology ===
Fermentation is a particular method of digesting of selected substances that leads to chemical transformation of organic substances into simpler compounds by the action of fement.<ref name=":7">Mira Roy. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Fermentation Technology : Page 437)</ref>

Generally fermentation quickly sets in substances of high sugar-content. Hence fermentation technology started in different parts of the old world with sweet-substances, be it vegetable or animal product. In Egypt honey was utilized first for preparation of intoxicating drink by fermentation. In Bharat, Soma juice, a sweet substance formed the first article of fermentation by the Vedic people. Although the technique or art of fermentation has been "self generated", the process may have been observed and used in remote past.

Milk products, like, curd (dadhi) requiring fermentation for changing of milk into such coagulated substance, was a very popular food article even in the Rigveda. The technique of curdling milk occurs in a number of texts connected with the Yajurveda. In the rituals Soma juice preparation involved preparing a sweet concoction for divine offering; while "sura" was another noted fermented product (a product of cereal and honey).<ref name=":7" /> They were also used in dyeing, mixing and dissolving operations and for binding and distilling mercury. In Sushruta Samhita, alcoholic beverages were referred to as 'Khola.'<ref name=":0" />

In Arthashastra we find various kinds of liquors described:<ref name=":1" />

* Medaka is prepared from the fermentation of rice
* Prasanna from the fermentation of flour with the addition of spices and fruits
* Asava is derived from fermentation of sugar mixed with honey
* Arista
* Maireya is derived from fermentation of jaggery mixed with long and black pepper or triphala (ayurvedic preparation)
* Madhu is obtained from fermentation of grapes

Kinva or ferment is prepared from boiled or unboiled paste of masha (Phaseolus radiatus), rice and morata (Alangium salviifolium) and the like.

== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ==
Many processes involved in extraction of metals from ores to their purification deal with advanced knowledge of chemistry. Many ancient and medieval texts reveal that people had this knowledge as outlined below.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />
[[File:Zawar Zinc Retorts.png|thumb|Zawar Zinc Mines in Rajasthan. Production of metallic zinc by Tiryakpatana yantra. ]]
* [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|'''Rasashastra''']]: The development of Rasashastra took place with regards to the processing and the use of heavy metals such as mercury, metals, minerals and many of their compounds for alchemical as well as therapeutic purposes. Many new methods/procedures/techniques for the treatment of mercury, metals/minerals were developed to convert these into pharmaceutically most suitable forms/compounds which are non-toxic, highly absorbable and most effective in therapeutics. Alchemical experiments (Lohavedha) were initially explored to remove poverty from the world by the monk of Buddhist order, Nagarjuna and his followers.<ref>Joshi, Damodar. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mercurial and Metallic Compunds: Page 256)</ref>
* '''Therapeutic Potential''': Although alchemic purposes of minerals were popular in earlier days, as Ayurveda developed utility of metals and minerals in therapeutics became prominent as seen in Charaka and Sushruta samhitas. Acharya Charaka mentioned three Maharasas (Makshika, Shilajatu and Sasyaka) and all eight Uparasas (Kankushta)<ref>''Charaka Samhita. Ayurveda Dipika Commentary by Chakrapanidutta.'' Varanasi: Chaukhambha Surbharati Prakashan (2000). (Chikitsa Sthana 7/111 pp 456).</ref> in his classic text. Interestingly, information on Sadharana rasas was not found in the classic. In addition to these minerals; information on certain salts (lavana dravya), alkaline substances (ksara dravyas) and calcium containing material (jantava dravya) etc. are also found described.<ref>Chandrashekhar. J., et. al., ''[https://www.academia.edu/38424308/Therapeutic_Potentials_of_Minerals_in_Ancient_India_A_Review_through_Charaka_Samhita Therapeutic Potentials of Minerals in Ancient India : A Review through Charaka Samhita.]'' J Res Edu Indian Med, Jan - Mar 2014; Vol. XX (1): 9-20</ref>
* '''Chemical Apparatus''': A large number of equipment, crucibles, furnaces etc., for processing of minerals and metals are described (Rasarnava). Rasaratnasamucchya contains description of several kinds of crucibles made of fireclay (vahnimrttika), funaces, implements and equipment to be used in the alchemical laboratory.
* '''Flame tests''': Specific colors of flames are due to specific salts of copper, tin, lead (Rasarnava 49). This test is also practiced in present day as preliminary test to identify the chemical compounds. According to Rasarnava - copper gives blue flame; tin, pigeon-colored; lead, pale; iron, tawny color of flame.
* '''Extraction of Copper''': Procedures were described for making copper metal from makshika (7.12-13) vimala (7.20-21) sasyaka (7.41-44) in Rasarnava text. While makshika and vimala are identified as pyrites (Copper pyrite ores) sasyaka is copper sulphate. All three products yielded Tamra or copper. Copper was discovered long before the Daltonian chemistry came into existence.
* '''Corrosion''': Six metals were arranged in the increasing order of corrosion (Rasarnava 7.89-90) - gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. Sulphur was highly reactive with most of the metals.<ref name=":2" />
* '''Chemical Processes''': Reduction-Oxidation in mineral-metal-metaloxide systems, conversion to sulphides were described in Rasaratnasamucchaya text. For preparation of pharmaceutical grade products for human consumption, many intermediary operations were described: purification of the mineral, metallic extraction (satvapaatana), liquefaction, distillation, incineration etc were performed.
* '''Preparation of Alloys''': Mishra-loha or mixed metals were prepared. Alloys of five metals (Pancha-loha) which is used till date to prepare auspicious idols and eight metals (ashtadhatu) were developed.
* '''Zinc Technology''': The Zawar zinc technology produced high-zinc (28%) brass alloy not produced anywhere else in the rest of the world. It is the earliest firm evidence for production of metallic zinc in the world. The zinc retorts found in Zawar were similar to those described in Rasaratnasamucchyaa and by Nagarjuna in his Rasaratnakara. The text gives details of the distillation process of zinc by tiryakpatanayantra (distillation by descending) which is totally an ingenious method where the zinc vapor formed after smelting zinc ore (in specifically designed retorts with condensers and furnaces) could be drastically cooled down to get a melt that could solidify to zinc metal.<ref name=":4">Srinivasan, Sharada and Ranganathan, Srinivasa. (2013) ''[http://eprints.nias.res.in/374/1/B8-2013%20Minerals%20and%20Metals%20Heritage%20of%20India.pdf Minerals and Metals Heritage of India.]'' Bangalore:National Institute of Advanced Studies.</ref>
* '''Bidri Alloy''': The alloy produced in the South Indian town of Bidar, contained Zinc (76-98%), Copper (2-10%), at times Lead (1-8%), tin (1-5%) and trace of Iron. Darkening of the Bidriware made was done by applying a paste of ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium chloride and copper sulphate. Several impressive vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels and huqqa bases were made of bidri ware with patterns influenced by the fine geometric and floral patterns and inlayed with gold and silver metals.

== Purification Processes in Ayurveda ==
The detoxification or purification process of any toxic material used for medicinal purposes is termed as “''Śodhana''”. The process is specially designed for the drugs from mineral origin; however, it is recommended for all kinds of drugs to remove their ''doṣās'' (impurities or toxic content). The concept of ''Śodhana'' in Ayurveda not only covers the process of purification/detoxifcation of physical as well as chemical impurities but also covers the minimization of side effects and improving the potency/therapeutic efficacy of the purified drugs.<ref>Maurya, S. K., Seth, A., Laloo, D., Singh, N. K., Singh Gautam, D. N., & Singh, A. K. (2015). Śodhana: An Ayurvedic process for detoxification and modification of therapeutic activities of poisonous medicinal plants. ''Ancient Science of Life'', ''34''(4), 188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.4103/0257-7941.160862</nowiki></ref> The minerals or metals are invariably subjected to purification processes in Ayurvedic preparations and the processes are complicated ones. Though these processes are meant for ‘purifying’ the substances, more often than naught, some extraneous material is added onto them. In general, purification means, according to the rasasastra texts, removal of the deleterious principles present in the naturally occurring substances, so that they become fit for internal use.<ref name=":8" /> Examples include

# '''Sulphur''' is purified by melting it in the medium of cow’s ghee and straining the molten mass through a cloth into milk or the juice of Bhrhgaraja kept in a pot. It is then washed with warm water and the process is repeated several times. Purification of sulphur is considered necessary as otherwise the impure sulphur, when taken in, would produce harmful effects such as loss of beauty, strength and vision. There are many methods for purification of sulphur using various materials.
# '''Mica''' is purified by heating it strongly and adding the hot powdered substance into a mixture of sour gruel, cow’s urine, decoction of the three myrobalans, cow’s milk, etc and the process is repeated seven times.
# '''Vaikranta''' is purified by boiling it with the decoction of kulattha (horsegram).
# Purification of '''mercury''' involves eight to eighteen methods. Mercury is purified by rubbing it for three days with the decoction of certain plants like kuman (Aloe indica), citraka (Plumbago zeylanica) and red mustard, or by rubbing it with lime and filtering through a cloth. Thereafter it is again rubbed with some quantity of garlic and common salt, and washed.
# The '''gems''' are purified by subjecting them to the action of the ‘vapours’ of a plant called jayanti.
It should be noted that these methods form the basis of purification of materials in Ayurvedic preparations and are lately studied for the chemical processes involved in them.

== References ==
[[Category:Shastras]]
<references />

Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्)

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Rasayana Shastra (रसायनशास्त्रम्)

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Rasayana Shastra (Samskrit: रसायनशास्त्रम्) referred to the subject of Chemistry based on the chemical activities involved in biological and inorganic processes. It was also called Rasatantra, Rasa Kriya or Rasa Vidya roughly translating to 'Science of Liquids'. "Rasa" in ayurvedic terminology refers to mercury and [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] exclusively deals with the treatment using mercury and its compounds. It is well known that science and technology in ancient and medieval India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science and surgery etc.

Chemistry is the study of elements present in the universe which involves the nature of the elements, their occurrence, their physical and chemical properties, their compounds, reactivity, uses and applications. Ancient samskrit literary works supported by the archaeological excavations all over the nation have proved the development of this science as early as the vedic period. The earliest evidence of chemical knowledge possessed by the ancient Indians in the prehistoric age has been brought to light by the findings of archaeological excavations in Baluchistan, Sindh and Punjab. The ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization that have been unearthed at in these areas furnish much information about the chemical knowledge acquired by the Indus Valley people, particularly with reference to the practical arts like pottery, brick-making, and extraction and working of metals.<ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref>

The findings testify to the facts that the people in the remote ages were acquainted with the art of making painted potteries as well as with the preparation and working of metallic copper. Prafulla Chandra Ray was a renowned researcher of chemistry, who set up several chemical industries in Bengal and is regarded as the "Father of Indian Chemistry" in modern times.

One must bear in mind that it is not just India, but several cultures, including non-western cultures around the world that have made several interesting innovations in the fields of chemistry and other subjects. However the present matter pertains to progress of Bharat in several areas of shastras and hence the attention is to bring such lesser known events to readers' knowledge.

== Introduction ==
[[File:First Pottery Images.png|thumb|406.25x406.25px|Images of Pottery. Courtesy: Dr. Michel Danino]]
Chemistry in ancient India, had its origin revealed through the great works of our ancient seers can be attributed to three major areas<ref name=":1" />
* intellectual speculation about the nature and composition of matter (Alchemy)
* development of practical arts to meet the demand for the necessities of life (Dyes, Fermentation)
* self preservation and welfare measures of the society (Ayurvedic preparation)
Ancient India's contribution to science and technology include principles of chemistry which did not remain abstract but found expression in practical activities like fermentation processes, distillation of perfumes, aromatic liquids, manufacturing of dyes and pigments and extraction of sugar, extraction of oil from oilseeds, and metallurgy which has remained an activity central to all civilizations from the earliest ages. Archaeologists' findings of the Indus valley civilization showed a well developed urban system with public baths, streets, granaries, temples, houses with baked bricks, mass production of pottery and even a script of their own which depicted the story of early chemistry.<ref name=":0">Purwar, Chhavi. ''[https://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issue-pdf/7278.pdf Significant Contribution of Chemistry in Ancient Indian Science and Technology.]'' International Journal of Development Research Vol. 06, Issue, 12, pp.10784-10788, December, 2016</ref>

In pottery making chemical processes were carried out in which materials were mixed, fired and moulded to achieve their objective. In the Rajasthan desert many pottery pieces of different shapes, sizes and colours were found. At Mohenjo-Daro it was found that for the construction of a well, gypsum cement had been used which contained clay, lime, sand and traces of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and was light grey in colour. Burnt bricks were manufactured on a large scale for making houses drains, boundary walls, public bath etc. Many useful products invented were plasters, hair washes, medicinal preparations etc. which had a number of minerals in them and were used by Indus Valley people.

Copper utensils, iron, seals, gold and silver ornaments, and terracotta discs and painted grey ware pottery have all been found in thirty five archaeological sites in North India. Scientific dating of these artifacts corresponds to the non-aryan invasion model of Indian antiquity.<ref name=":0" />

Thus the major chemical products that developed gradually over various eras can be summarized as glass, bricks and pottery, paper, soap, ink, dyeing, cosmetics and perfumes, alcoholic beverages, food processing, pharmaceuticals, mining techniques and alloy preparations, gun powder and saltpetre, and oilseeds. The practical chemists—potters, brewers, dyers, metalsmiths, glassmakers and the like—contributed a great deal to the growth of technology and in no small measure to the economic welfare of the ancient communities. They were noted for their craftsmanship and experimental skills involving many a chemical transformation both qualitative and quantitative, even though they did not appear to have formulated any theoretical knowledge of the chemical transformations.<ref name=":8">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 274</ref>

== Alchemical Ideas in the Vedas ==
Rigveda mentions the Asvini devatas, the divine physicians, who when invoked gave sight to the blind and made the lame walk, restoring people to good health. The Vedas mention many plants, herbs, minerals and metals as the sources of healing powers, used for treating ailments though their potencies are not described. A Rigveda sukta (1.162) gives an account of the bronze cauldron. Gold was used for ornaments like anklets, rings, etc. Mention of metal vessels, tools and armour, seals made mainly of copper, bronze, affords evidence of the knowledge of metal working.<ref name=":1" /> According to Rigveda, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton was practiced during this period. References are found in the Rigveda about the preparation of tanning of leather and hides for use as slings, bead strings, reins and whips.<ref name=":1" />

There are ample references of a number of fermented drinks. Soma, the rasa (juice) is a fermented juice from the stems of soma plant regarded as the Amrita, is said to heal all ailments and bestow immortality. Among fermented liquors, there is a mention of madhu, a drink supplied at feasts, and sura, another drink probably a kind of beer brewed from barley grain. Curds or fermented milk constituted an important item of diet. Clothes were mainly made of wool and the garments were often dyed red, purple and brown; people demonstrated their acquaintance with the art of dyeing with natural vegetable coloring material.<ref name=":1" />

Yajurveda clearly mentions six metals<ref name=":1" /> - Ayas (gold), Hiranya (silver), Loha (copper), Shyama (iron), Sisa (lead), Trapu (tin). Atharvaveda names Harita (yellow) as gold, Rajata (white) as silver and Lohita (red) as copper.

Plants and herbs were worshipped for their healing powers. The Atharvaveda mentions the suktas for the cure of diseases and possession by demons of disease are known as "bhaishajyani,' while those which have for their object the securing of long life and health are known as "ayushyani," a term which later on gave place to '''rasayana''', the Sanskrit equivalent of alchemy.<ref>Ray, P. C. (1903). ''A History of Hindu Chemistry: From the earliest times to the middle of the sixteenth century A. D.'' (2nd ed., Vol. 1). The Bengal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Works Limited. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.39319/mode/2up</nowiki></ref> While the term itself does not mean chemistry, a study of history of chemistry through the Vedic, Darshana, Tantric and Ayurvedic textual studies reveals the relationship of alchemy and modern day chemistry to the understanding of Rasayana shastra as variously described in ancient texts. Alchemy in India was variously called [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]], Rasavidya; the word rasa has many meanings, such as essence, taste, sap, juice or semen, but in this context refers to mercury, seen as one of the most important elements.

== Origin and Properties of Matter ==
Chemistry involves the study of fundamental properties of matter and atoms, and their inter-relationships. The Ayurvedic period constitutes the most flourishing and fruitful age of ancient India relating to the accumulation and development of chemical sciences which at that time was closely associated with medicine. The physical and chemical theories were intricately associated with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|srshti siddhantas]] propounded in the vedic, upanishadic and darshana shastras. Ayurveda was founded on the theories of cosmic evolution in [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Darshanas]] most importantly of Samkhya and Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" />

=== Cosmogenesis ===
Chemistry dealt primarily with the composition and changes of matter and the underlying principles were deduced in a systematic and logical way purely based on thoughts with little or no experimental proofs. Yet many such theories, the products of intellectual perfection and sublime intuition, stand in good comparison with some of the most recent and advanced scientific ideas of the present time. Here we come across a few ancient concepts with particular reference to srshti (theories of cosmogenesis) and origin of jagat (universe) with respect to matter and particles and their connection with chemistry.
* Rig veda (10.121.1) mentions Hiranyagarbha reflecting the concept of cosmic egg and origin of universe from an egg.
* Satapatha Brahmana (6.1.3.1-5) propounded a theory of material evolution.<ref name=":2" />
* Chandogya Upanishad mentions about expansion of universe from an embryonic stage called "Anda" (Chan. Upan. 3.19) wherein after period of one year, it burst open into two halves, one of silver and the other of gold. The lower half of silver became earth and the golden half became the sky and higher regions.
* Katha Upanisad (1.2.20) mentioned atoms and molecules.<ref name=":2" />
* Samkhya siddhanta (supported by Yoga sutras of Patanjali) describes the principles of conservation, transformation and dissipation of energy. Additionally the conception of space (desha) and time (Kala) are also discussed.
* Vaiseshika siddhanta propounded the particulate theory of matter ([[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas)]] to describe the nature of different substances that make up this jagat.
* Prasastapada had proposed in his Padartha-dharma-sarhgraha that atoms (anu) form - through dyads (dvyanuka) and triads, (tryanuka), gross bodies (`molecules' in modern terminology) and 'this gives rise to different qualities in a substance'.<ref name=":2">''[http://eprints.nmlindia.org/5802/1/1-24.PDF Minerals and Their Exploitation in Ancient and Pre-modern India]'' by Prof. A. K. Biswas</ref>
Thus broadly the origin and composition of matter had the foundations in our ancient texts.

==== Samkhya-Patanjala Yoga View of Cosmic Evolution ====
P. C. Ray in the History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India<ref name=":1" /> briefly discusses the Indian theories of evolution and their relation to modern concepts of matter and energy. Samkhya-Yoga schools of thought, according to him, describe cosmogony as based on the principles of conservation, transformation and dissipation of energy and the conception of space (desha) and time (kala). Universe, according to Samkhya, evolved out of an unmanifested cosmic nature termed Prakriti or Avyakta, the ultimate ground. It is believed to be made of infinitesimal reals or gunas, representing substantive entities. They are classified under three heads

- sattva - the essence or intelligent matter

- rajas - the energy

- tamas - the inertia or material substance

These three gunas exist together in equilibrium or uniform diffusion in the infinite continuum, Prakriti. Samkhya attributes the character of both quantum (parichhinatva) and continuity or extension (pariman) to both energy and matter similar to modern concepts. Prakriti is in a state of perfect equipoise with all its gunas in equilibrium representing evolution under arrest. A disturbance of this equilibrium through transcendental or magnetic influence exerted by Purusha (the Absolute) on the Avaykta sets the evolutionary process in motion. The disturbance of the original equilibrium in Prakriti led to an unequal aggregation or collection of gunas representing a creative transformation accompanied by evolution of motion (parispanda) according to a universal definite law. Cosmic evolution is two-fold creative as well as destructive, dissimulative and assimilative, catabolic and anabolic in nature. Samkhya principles also show concurrence with the laws of causation, conservation of mass and energy as well as their transformations.
[[File:Golden cosmic egg Hiranyagarbha by Manaku.jpg|thumb|The Golden Cosmic Egg - Hiranyagarbha]]

==== Cosmic Evolution View in Upanishads ====
According to this theory, the universe existed in the beginning in a highly refined or potential form like a seed or an embryo with grosser form of apa (water) forming an egg. The egg after a period of maturation broke into two pieces giving rise to the celestial and earthly worlds.<ref name=":1" />

Hiranyagarbha signifies the 'golden womb' or source of creation. Described as the cosmic entity it represents the potential and creative force behind worldly existence. Hiranyagarbha is the Prana, the vital force, the first manifestation as per Chandogya Upanishad. The whole cosmos is governed and activated by Prana.<ref>''Chandogya Upanisad'' (S. Lokeswarananda, Trans.). (1995). Sri Ramakrishna Math.</ref>
=== Atomistic Conception of Matter ===
{{Main article|Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)}}
Important concepts of physics and chemistry studied in modern times were proposed discussed and debated in ancient times primarily in [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] and [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]] darshanas. Most notably enumeration of all knowable or sensorial objects called [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] are categorized and their attributes are described in [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]], [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]]-[[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]], darshanas and in [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Ayurveda]] samhitas.

=== Elemental nature of Matter ===
The Samkhya theory posits that the world is a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Prakriti, and one becoming many. The Vaiseshika darshana propounds that the world arises out of atoms combining together in various ways, i.e., many becoming one.

According to the Samkhya school's theory of matter,<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> '''tanmatras''' are five subtle elements or infra-atomic particles imperceptible to the human senses as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation of gunas from Prakriti as explained above during evolution. These subsequently gave rise, by the same process, to five grosser elements - the Panchamahabhutas namely, akasa (space or ether), vayu (air), tejas (fire), apa (water), and bhumi (earth). They are regarded as representing five abstract principles, or rather a classification of substances on the basis of their properties and states of aggregation. Earth, water and air may be viewed as comprising all the so-called elements or compounds of chemistry.
* Bhumi or kshiti typifies all solids
* Apa typifies all liquids
* Vayu typifies all gases
According to Samkhya, atoms (Anu-s) of these grosses elements are composite units made up of infra-atomic particles, the tanmatras.
== Chemistry in Ancient India ==
In ancient India, chemistry served medicine on one hand - in the preparation of a number of medicines—and technology on the other—for preparing colors, steels, cements, spirits, etc. While knowledge of metals and oxides was prevalent, of the metallic medicines, mercury was particularly popular. In Rigveda there is a mention of gold, silver, copper, bronze among metals or metallic objects.<ref name=":1" /> The Ramayana and the Mahabharata mention weapons with arrowheads coated with a variety of chemicals, indicating their knowledge of Alchemy. Various chemical processes generally described in the ancient treatises are those of extraction, purification, tempering, calcination, powdering, liquefying, precipitation, washing, drying, steaming, melting, filing, etc. Later, all these processes were applied to various metals, using special apparatuses or yantras and reagents and heating to different degrees—high, average and low.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, D. (1982). ''Studies in the history of science in India'' (Vol. 1). Editorial Enterprises.</ref> Chemistry was vigorously pursued in India during the Mahayana phase of activity of Buddhism as seen from the text Rasaratnakara ascribed to Acharya Nagarjuna.

=== Classification of Chemical Substances ===
The well-known rasashastra texts like the Rasahrdaya, the Rasarnava, the Rasaratnasamuccaya and the Rasaprakasasudhakara have classified the chemical substances into<ref>Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 322-326</ref>

# '''Maharasas''': They are a group of minerals which have been recognized as most useful for the potentiation of the rasa namely [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)|Mercury or Parada]].<ref name=":9">Bhagwat, V. S. R., Kurkute, B. R., Shinde, B. T., & Tapare, S. K. (2017). CLASSIFICATION OF RASADRAVYAS IN RASASHASTRA. ''World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research'', ''6''(4), 792–802. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.20959/wjpr20174-8226</nowiki></ref> They are eight in number, Abhraka (Mica; Double silicate of aluminium and Potassium or sodium), Vaikranta (Tourmaline; K2OAl2O36SiO2), Makshika (Chalcopyrite/Copper pyrite; Cu2S, Fe2S3), Vimala (Iron pyrite; Fe2S3), Shilajatu (Black bitumen or mineral pitch), Sasyaka (Copper sulphate/blue vitriol; CuSO4 7H2O), Rasaka (Zinc ore; ZnO, ZnS, ZnCO3), Chapala (Bismuth/selenium).
# '''Uparasa''': These drugs are not equivalent to Parada, but properties of this group of drugs possess less gunas than Parada and indicate usefulness in different procedures of parada or its action towards parada.<ref name=":10">G. T., C., Geethesh, R. R., & Angadi, R. (2018). Collocation Of Rasa Dravyas – An Exploration. ''International Ayurvedic Medical Journal'', ''6''(9), 2102–2108. <nowiki>http://www.iamj.in/posts/images/upload/2102_2108.pdf</nowiki></ref> The eight uparasas are: Gandhaka (Sulphur; S), Gairika (Ochre; Fe2O3), Kasisa (Ferrous sulphate/ green vitriol; FeSO47H2O), Kankshi (Potash alum; K2SO4 Al2(SO)324H2O), Haratala (Orpiment, yellow arsenic; As2S3), Manahshila (Realgar; As2S2), Anjana (Collyrium), Kankushta (Gambose tree extract).
# '''Dhatu''': Dhatus are the drugs which are been extracted (removed forcedly) from their ore, (by melting or process of distillation) similarly the diseases are removed forcedly from the body by them so they are called as Loha.<ref name=":9" /> Here usually seven metals are named: svarna (gold), rajata or tara (silver), tamra (copper), loha (iron), naga (lead), vanga (tin) and yasada (zinc). But, the three alloys (misraloha), viz. brass (pittala), bell-metal (kamsya) and a mixture of five metals (vartaka), also come under the category of dhatu. There are textual differences of which metals comprise metals. Rasarnava mentions six metals including copper but Rasaratnasamuccaya not according a place to copper among the dhatus.
# '''Ratna''': The ratnas generally are precious gems. They are of mineral & animal origin which are found in rocks and are formed during the crust formation of the earth. They are durable, colorful & rare and the most valuable entity.<ref name=":10" /> These are classified on the basis of; structure, relation to the planets, opacity & transparency, beauty and scarcity. The principal gems used by the rasavadins are: vaikranta (also classed under maharasa), suryakanta (sun-stone; aventurine feldspar mainly containing silicate of sodium and potassium with disseminated particles of red iron oxide which cause fire-like flashes of colour), candrakanta (moon-stone; a type of feldspar containing silicates of aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, etc., which possesses a bluish pearly opalescence), hiraka (diamond), mauktika (pearl), garudodgara (emerald), rajavarta (lapis lazuli), marakata (topaz), nila (sapphire) and padmaraga (ruby).
# '''Visha:''' Rasarnava appears to be the first text to mention about Visha and Upavisa classification. They are useful in rasakarma and rasabandhana. Rasamanjari, Rasendrachintamani, Rasa jala nidhi have explained 18 kanda visha. They are- Kalakuta, Saktuka, Vatsanabha, Shringika, Mustaka, Halahala, Haridra, Mayura, Binduka, Sunama, Shankhanabha, Sumangala, Pushkara, Bhramara, Karkotaka, Shuklakanda, Raktashringi, Visha or Chakra.<ref name=":10" />
# '''Sadharana rasas''': It is explained only by Rasaratnasamuchaya.<ref name=":9" /> They are Kampillaka (Mallotus philippinesis Muell-arg), Gouripashana (Arsenious oxide; As2O3), Navasadara (Ammonium chloride; NH2Cl), Kapardika (Cowries), Agnijara (Amber), Girisindura (Red oxide of mercury; HgO), Hingula (Cinnabar; HgS), Mruddarashringa (Litharge; PbO).<ref name=":10" />

According to tradition, the maharasas and the uparasas are classified in the order in which they find their usefulness with reference to mercury (rasendra). There is also a view that mercury alone has the appellation of rasa, and all the others are called uparasas. Some of the texts differ from one another in the number of maha- and uparasas as well as the substances comprising them. While the Rasaratnasamuccaya gives the above classification, the Rasaprakasasudhakara, considers rajavarta (lapis lazuli) as a maharasa in the place of capala.

=== Yantras ===
Many Rasashastra texts carefully spell out the layout of the laboratory, with four doors, an esoteric symbol (RASALINGA) in the east, furnaces in the southeast, instruments in the northwest, etc termed as Rasashala.

== Traditional Chemical Practices in India ==
The industries which sustained on chemical process may be classified broadly under the following headings.<ref>Danino. Michel, [https://www.academia.edu/23305766/Technology_in_Ancient_India_-_Michel_Danino Technology in Ancient India]</ref>
# Ayurvedic Preparations: medical preparations including purificatory processes of mercurial compounds involved chemical reactions and apparatuses are discussed in [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] and [[Rasayana (रसायनम्)|Rasayana]].
# Chemical arts and crafts: they include the following
##'''Pottery''': Involves prolonged heating, fusion, evaporation, and treatment of minerals and pigments for coloring and art.
## '''Bead and Glass making''': Glass is a solid fused mixture of lime, alkali, sand and metallic oxides. They were coloured by adding colouring agents like metal oxides. The Ramayana, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Brihatsamhita mention glass being used. Evidences of glass slag and glazing are found in Hastinapur, Takshila, Nevasa Kolhapur, Maheshwar and Paunar.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Jewellery making'''
## '''Dyeing''': Numerous dyes from vegetable and mineral sources, use of mordants for textiles, craft paints which are relevant both in [[Textile Technology (तन्तुकार्यम्)|textile industry]] and [[Chitrakarma (चित्रकर्म)|chitrakarma]] or art of painting. The principal dyeing materials were turmeric madder, sunflower orpiment, cochineal, lac and kermes. Some other substance having tinting properties were Kampillaka, Pattanga and Jatuka. [[Chemistry of Dyeing (रञ्जनम्)|Chemistry of dyeing]] was well developed with the identification of acidic and basic natures of dyes and use of mordants especially for textiles.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Cosmetics and perfumes''': Brhatsamhita mentions a large number of references to cosmetics and perfumes used in worship and for human enjoyment. The Bower Manuscript (Navanitaka) contained recipes of hair dyes which consisted of a number of plants like indigo and minerals like iron powder, black iron or steel and acidic extracts of sour rice gruel. Gandhayukti gave recipes for making scents, mouth perfumes, bath powders, incense and talcum powder.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Paper and Ink industry''': In ancient India knowledge spread verbally through the word of mouth from the teacher to the disciple, hence it was called Shruti. But with the discovery of scripts, written records gradually replaced the verbal transmission of thought.<ref>Tiwari, L. (n.d.). ''History of paper technology in India''.</ref> Paper, as a writing material, was hardly known in India before the 11th century AD. Al-Biruni writes, "it was in China that paper was first manufactured, Chinese prisoners introduced the fabrication of paper in Samarkand, and thereupon it was made in various places, so as to meet the existing want".
## '''Fermentation technology''': Approximately 610 Mantras of ninth Maṇḍala of Ṛgveda says that they were preparing drinks like Soma (Ṛgveda-1.116.7& 10.119.3) by the process of fermentation and the same was used in several religions ceremonies and social gatherings.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref> Barks of plants, stem, flower, leaves, woods, cereals, fruits and sugarcane were some of the sources for making these liquors.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Building materials''': Mortar and Cement using limestone, gypsum and their modified forms are mentioned as the building materials used in ancient times.
## '''Tanning of leather:'''
# [[Mineralogy (धातुशास्त्रम्)]] or the study of Minerals, broadly involves mining of metal ores such as those of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc and iron and preparation of alloys such as bronze, and brass. A very comprehensive account of ores, minerals and metals with their extraction and working, their alloys is found in the Arthashastra. There was wide usage of metals for ornaments, utensils, warfare weaponry, coinage, and preparation of medicines.

== Chemical Arts and Crafts ==

=== Dyes, Mordants and Pigments ===
{{Main article|Chemistry of Dyeing (रञ्जनम्)}}
Archeological and literary evidences prove that the art of dyeing was practiced since early days of Indian civilization. A dye is a colored substance which imparts more or less permanent color to other materials. Colored substances usually organic chemical compounds were used for textile dyeing. Dyes which are prepared in the form of powder, paste or solution are utilized generally in coloring cotton, wool, silk and cloth of natural fibres, in cosmetics and manufacture of ink etc. Many soluble dyes are converted into pigments by forming insoluble salts (ex - by replacing sodium in a dye salt with calcium) for use in lacquers, paints etc. Dyes were also used for artificial coloring of food items and soft drinks. They are also used for coloring hair, fur, metals etc.

=== Glass Industry ===
{{Main article|Glass (काचः)}}

Generally, glass is produced by melting a mixture of silica (sand: about 75%), soda (about 15%) and calcium compound (lime: about 10%) with the desired metallic oxides that serve as coloring agents.<ref>Story of Glass in India & the World by Pankaj Goyal</ref> Origin of glass is shrouded in mystery and scholars note that it is difficult to pinpoint the exact period. Modern archeological evidence proved that Mesapotamia, Egypt and India made various siliceous and glazed materials including faience (glazed siliceous ware), glazed pottery and glass.<ref name=":8" />

=== Fermentation Technology ===
Fermentation is a particular method of digesting of selected substances that leads to chemical transformation of organic substances into simpler compounds by the action of fement.<ref name=":7">Mira Roy. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Fermentation Technology : Page 437)</ref>

Generally fermentation quickly sets in substances of high sugar-content. Hence fermentation technology started in different parts of the old world with sweet-substances, be it vegetable or animal product. In Egypt honey was utilized first for preparation of intoxicating drink by fermentation. In Bharat, Soma juice, a sweet substance formed the first article of fermentation by the Vedic people. Although the technique or art of fermentation has been "self generated", the process may have been observed and used in remote past.

Milk products, like, curd (dadhi) requiring fermentation for changing of milk into such coagulated substance, was a very popular food article even in the Rigveda. The technique of curdling milk occurs in a number of texts connected with the Yajurveda. In the rituals Soma juice preparation involved preparing a sweet concoction for divine offering; while "sura" was another noted fermented product (a product of cereal and honey).<ref name=":7" /> They were also used in dyeing, mixing and dissolving operations and for binding and distilling mercury. In Sushruta Samhita, alcoholic beverages were referred to as 'Khola.'<ref name=":0" />

In Arthashastra we find various kinds of liquors described:<ref name=":1" />

* Medaka is prepared from the fermentation of rice
* Prasanna from the fermentation of flour with the addition of spices and fruits
* Asava is derived from fermentation of sugar mixed with honey
* Arista
* Maireya is derived from fermentation of jaggery mixed with long and black pepper or triphala (ayurvedic preparation)
* Madhu is obtained from fermentation of grapes

Kinva or ferment is prepared from boiled or unboiled paste of masha (Phaseolus radiatus), rice and morata (Alangium salviifolium) and the like.

== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ==
Many processes involved in extraction of metals from ores to their purification deal with advanced knowledge of chemistry. Many ancient and medieval texts reveal that people had this knowledge as outlined below.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />
[[File:Zawar Zinc Retorts.png|thumb|Zawar Zinc Mines in Rajasthan. Production of metallic zinc by Tiryakpatana yantra. ]]
* [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|'''Rasashastra''']]: The development of Rasashastra took place with regards to the processing and the use of heavy metals such as mercury, metals, minerals and many of their compounds for alchemical as well as therapeutic purposes. Many new methods/procedures/techniques for the treatment of mercury, metals/minerals were developed to convert these into pharmaceutically most suitable forms/compounds which are non-toxic, highly absorbable and most effective in therapeutics. Alchemical experiments (Lohavedha) were initially explored to remove poverty from the world by the monk of Buddhist order, Nagarjuna and his followers.<ref>Joshi, Damodar. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mercurial and Metallic Compunds: Page 256)</ref>
* '''Therapeutic Potential''': Although alchemic purposes of minerals were popular in earlier days, as Ayurveda developed utility of metals and minerals in therapeutics became prominent as seen in Charaka and Sushruta samhitas. Acharya Charaka mentioned three Maharasas (Makshika, Shilajatu and Sasyaka) and all eight Uparasas (Kankushta)<ref>''Charaka Samhita. Ayurveda Dipika Commentary by Chakrapanidutta.'' Varanasi: Chaukhambha Surbharati Prakashan (2000). (Chikitsa Sthana 7/111 pp 456).</ref> in his classic text. Interestingly, information on Sadharana rasas was not found in the classic. In addition to these minerals; information on certain salts (lavana dravya), alkaline substances (ksara dravyas) and calcium containing material (jantava dravya) etc. are also found described.<ref>Chandrashekhar. J., et. al., ''[https://www.academia.edu/38424308/Therapeutic_Potentials_of_Minerals_in_Ancient_India_A_Review_through_Charaka_Samhita Therapeutic Potentials of Minerals in Ancient India : A Review through Charaka Samhita.]'' J Res Edu Indian Med, Jan - Mar 2014; Vol. XX (1): 9-20</ref>
* '''Chemical Apparatus''': A large number of equipment, crucibles, furnaces etc., for processing of minerals and metals are described (Rasarnava). Rasaratnasamucchya contains description of several kinds of crucibles made of fireclay (vahnimrttika), funaces, implements and equipment to be used in the alchemical laboratory.
* '''Flame tests''': Specific colors of flames are due to specific salts of copper, tin, lead (Rasarnava 49). This test is also practiced in present day as preliminary test to identify the chemical compounds. According to Rasarnava - copper gives blue flame; tin, pigeon-colored; lead, pale; iron, tawny color of flame.
* '''Extraction of Copper''': Procedures were described for making copper metal from makshika (7.12-13) vimala (7.20-21) sasyaka (7.41-44) in Rasarnava text. While makshika and vimala are identified as pyrites (Copper pyrite ores) sasyaka is copper sulphate. All three products yielded Tamra or copper. Copper was discovered long before the Daltonian chemistry came into existence.
* '''Corrosion''': Six metals were arranged in the increasing order of corrosion (Rasarnava 7.89-90) - gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. Sulphur was highly reactive with most of the metals.<ref name=":2" />
* '''Chemical Processes''': Reduction-Oxidation in mineral-metal-metaloxide systems, conversion to sulphides were described in Rasaratnasamucchaya text. For preparation of pharmaceutical grade products for human consumption, many intermediary operations were described: purification of the mineral, metallic extraction (satvapaatana), liquefaction, distillation, incineration etc were performed.
* '''Preparation of Alloys''': Mishra-loha or mixed metals were prepared. Alloys of five metals (Pancha-loha) which is used till date to prepare auspicious idols and eight metals (ashtadhatu) were developed.
* '''Zinc Technology''': The Zawar zinc technology produced high-zinc (28%) brass alloy not produced anywhere else in the rest of the world. It is the earliest firm evidence for production of metallic zinc in the world. The zinc retorts found in Zawar were similar to those described in Rasaratnasamucchyaa and by Nagarjuna in his Rasaratnakara. The text gives details of the distillation process of zinc by tiryakpatanayantra (distillation by descending) which is totally an ingenious method where the zinc vapor formed after smelting zinc ore (in specifically designed retorts with condensers and furnaces) could be drastically cooled down to get a melt that could solidify to zinc metal.<ref name=":4">Srinivasan, Sharada and Ranganathan, Srinivasa. (2013) ''[http://eprints.nias.res.in/374/1/B8-2013%20Minerals%20and%20Metals%20Heritage%20of%20India.pdf Minerals and Metals Heritage of India.]'' Bangalore:National Institute of Advanced Studies.</ref>
* '''Bidri Alloy''': The alloy produced in the South Indian town of Bidar, contained Zinc (76-98%), Copper (2-10%), at times Lead (1-8%), tin (1-5%) and trace of Iron. Darkening of the Bidriware made was done by applying a paste of ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium chloride and copper sulphate. Several impressive vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels and huqqa bases were made of bidri ware with patterns influenced by the fine geometric and floral patterns and inlayed with gold and silver metals.

== Purification Processes in Ayurveda ==
The detoxification or purification process of any toxic material used for medicinal purposes is termed as “''Śodhana''”. The process is specially designed for the drugs from mineral origin; however, it is recommended for all kinds of drugs to remove their ''doṣās'' (impurities or toxic content). The concept of ''Śodhana'' in Ayurveda not only covers the process of purification/detoxifcation of physical as well as chemical impurities but also covers the minimization of side effects and improving the potency/therapeutic efficacy of the purified drugs.<ref>Maurya, S. K., Seth, A., Laloo, D., Singh, N. K., Singh Gautam, D. N., & Singh, A. K. (2015). Śodhana: An Ayurvedic process for detoxification and modification of therapeutic activities of poisonous medicinal plants. ''Ancient Science of Life'', ''34''(4), 188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.4103/0257-7941.160862</nowiki></ref> The minerals or metals are invariably subjected to purification processes in Ayurvedic preparations and the processes are complicated ones. Though these processes are meant for ‘purifying’ the substances, more often than naught, some extraneous material is added onto them. In general, purification means, according to the rasasastra texts, removal of the deleterious principles present in the naturally occurring substances, so that they become fit for internal use.<ref name=":8" /> Examples include

# '''Sulphur''' is purified by melting it in the medium of cow’s ghee and straining the molten mass through a cloth into milk or the juice of Bhrhgaraja kept in a pot. It is then washed with warm water and the process is repeated several times. Purification of sulphur is considered necessary as otherwise the impure sulphur, when taken in, would produce harmful effects such as loss of beauty, strength and vision. There are many methods for purification of sulphur using various materials.
# '''Mica''' is purified by heating it strongly and adding the hot powdered substance into a mixture of sour gruel, cow’s urine, decoction of the three myrobalans, cow’s milk, etc and the process is repeated seven times.
# '''Vaikranta''' is purified by boiling it with the decoction of kulattha (horsegram).
# Purification of '''mercury''' involves eight to eighteen methods. Mercury is purified by rubbing it for three days with the decoction of certain plants like kuman (Aloe indica), citraka (Plumbago zeylanica) and red mustard, or by rubbing it with lime and filtering through a cloth. Thereafter it is again rubbed with some quantity of garlic and common salt, and washed.
# The '''gems''' are purified by subjecting them to the action of the ‘vapours’ of a plant called jayanti.
It should be noted that these methods form the basis of purification of materials in Ayurvedic preparations and are lately studied for the chemical processes involved in them.

== References ==
[[Category:Shastras]]
<references />

Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)

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Atom has been described as the smallest, indivisible particle in any substance. Science and philosophy have studied through investigations and experiments, the many forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear forces etc., but one of the major theories studied is that of the atom.

== Nyaya-Vaiseshika Atomic Theory ==
The Atomic Theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system explains the order of creation and destruction of non-eternal objects. According to this theory only the composite substances of the atoms of earth, water, air and fire which are produced and destroyed. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, and the universe consists of multiple entities, both material and spiritual, making up its ultimate constituents.

The chemical theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system involves the theory of Anu-s or atoms comparable to the tanmatras of the Samkhya philosophy. The Samkhya virtually substantizes the “gunas”; the Vaiseshikas take them to be qualities which are always found in some dravya. According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. There are two states of anu- a state of motion and a state of absolute rest.
The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).
Each of the first five substances possess a unique quality, which makes the substance what it is. Maharshi Kanada recognized four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>
#kshiti or earth - smell
#apa or water - taste
#tejas or fire - color
#vayu or air - touch
These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are partless and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha. Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />

That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.

Key Features of the Ancient Indian Atomic Theory:

* '''Indivisibility:''' Parmanu are considered the smallest, indivisible particles, the limit of division for matter.
* '''Eternal and Unchangeable:''' Atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and the basis for all material objects.
* '''Four Elemental Atoms:''' The theory posits four elemental atoms: earth, water, light, and air.
* '''Atoms as Building Blocks:''' These atoms combine to form larger molecules, called "dvyaṇuka" (binary molecules), and then further combine to create various substances.
* '''Chemical Change:''' Chemical reactions, such as changes in color of heated mud utensils, are attributed to the combination and rearrangement of atoms.
* '''Properties of Atoms:''' Atoms of the same element have identical properties, while different elements have different types of atoms.
* '''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.

Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.
====Combination of Atoms====
Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. The atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine driven by an inherent tendency which is their natural property to form dyads according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> Maharshi Kanada maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.

Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads ≡ 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1

While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":52">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>

Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).
====Effect of Heat====
A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":12" />

- decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc)

- transformation of the character of the atoms

- recombination of paramanus with a new basic unit arrangement and order resulting in a new substance.

The Vaisheshikas hold that under the influence of heat, substances are broken down to the most basic entity (paramanu) before being transformed in to a new substance whereas the Nyaya school does not believe in decomposition in to the very basic entity.<ref name=":32">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>

Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same or different bhuta classes.<ref name=":12" />

(A) Mono-bhautic compounds :—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same bhuta class.

(B) Hetero-bhautic compounds :—These may be bi or polybhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different bhuta classes.

A nature (Tattva) of the particular substance when it turns into another nature is called transmutation (Utparivartana) in scientific terms. A study on the Changes (Parivartana) and analysis (Visleṣaṇa) of the substance because of its origin and qualities is called Chemical Science of the particular substance. The Change is of two kinds such as

1) Physical Change (Bhautika Parivartana)

2) Chemical Change (Rāsāyanika Parivartana)

The first type of change i.e. the Physical Change, is when the nature of the substance undergoes changes due to various reasons for a particular period of time and returns back to its previous state. For example, a piece of Iron forms into magnet after a deep friction (Gharṣaṇa) on the magnet and returns into being a piece of iron after it loses the magnetic effect. In same manner, water turns into ice at the state of high cooling (Himānka) and returns to liquid state after melting.

In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref>

== Samkhya Theory of Matter ==

== References ==
[[Category:Chemistry]]

Glass (काचः)

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Glass (Samskrit: काचः) is a molten mixture of substances such as lime, sand, alkali and metal oxides. It comes in many forms: transparent, opaque, colored and colorless. Glass is a 'supercooled liquid' whose main component is silica. Mention of glass or kaca is profuse in the ancient Indian texts. Ample evidence suggests that glassmaking was widespread in ancient India and the craft achieved a high degree of success.<ref name=":5">Banerjee, S. (2024) Indian knowledge system: A Study of Ancient Indian Chemistry of Glass. ''International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research'', ''11,1(III) 51-54''</ref>

== Introduction ==
Glass is certainly considered one among earliest man-made excessive generation materials. The manufacturing of glass changed into a first-rate technological improvement within the ancient times. Glass is always made from a mineral (obsidian) and is formed when siliceous materials (such as silica-rich plants and sand) combine with alkali( wood ash). Controlling the temperature of melting, forming, annealing, spotting and hot foiling are the important techniques applied in the preparation of glass.<ref name=":5" />

=== Technical terms ===
Archeometric studies reveal that glass gradually evolved through experimentation by early man with various siliceous materials with the help of pyro-technology.<ref name=":2">Bharadwaj. H. C. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Glass: 208 - 225)</ref> In dealing with ancient glass objects, it is necessary to differentiate glass from glaze and faience, which have some common ingredients and present some identical superficial effects, but are not true glass.<ref name=":3">Sen, N., & Chaudhuri, M. C. (1985). ''Ancient Glass and India''. Indian National Science Academy.</ref>

* '''Glass''': Glass is a material created by fusing materials like sand, soda, and lime at high temperatures. The chemical name for glass is SILICON DIOXIDE (Si02). Common names for glass are silica, sand, quartz and flint. Silicon dioxide is one of the most common minerals composing the earth and can be easily found in most parts of the world. Glass and glaze are chemically identical but are worked and used differently.
* '''Glaze''': A glaze is a vitreous substance which is applied in thin layers to another substance acting as the core material. Thus glaze is a glassy layer applied to a core or base of some other material.<ref name=":0">Kanungo, A. (2008). Glass in India. In ''Development of Glass in India'' (pp. 1023–1033). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9743</nowiki></ref>
* '''Faience''': Faience (glazed siliceous ware) has powdered quartz core with an over glaze, which is soda-lime-silica glass, and is isotropic in nature.<ref name=":2" /> Faience consists of a lightly sintered core of crushed quartz grains coated with a translucent blue-to-green glaze, both fluxing due to soda.<ref name=":0" />

== Glass in Ancient Indian Literature ==

Mention of glass (kaca काच) and its by-products, most prominently that of beads, occurs in [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]] such as Satapatha Brahmana and Buddhist literature Mahavagga, Cullavagga. The use of the word kaca (काच) for glass was common in daily life during the times of Buddha and thereafter found frequently in Sanskrit and Pali literature. In Yajurveda, kaca (काच) is mentioned as one the articles of which ladies ornaments were made by stringing with gold thread. In Satapatha Brahmana kaca may mean glass beads which were used for decorating horses in the ashvamedha yajna.<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>एवमेतत्पशो स्कन्दति यस्य निक्तस्य लोमानि शीयन्ते '''यत्काचाना'''वयन्ति लोमान्येवास्य सम्भरन्ति हिरण्मया भवन्ति तस्योक्तं ब्राह्मणमेकशतमेकशतं '''काचानावयन्ति''' शतायुर्वै पुरुष आत्मैकशत आयुष्येवात्मन्प्रतितिष्ठति.. (Sata. Brah. 13.2.6.8)<ref>Satapatha Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A5%AC Kanda 13 Adhyaya 2 Brahmana 6])</ref>

evametatpaśo skandati yasya niktasya lomāni śīyante yat'''kācā'''nāvayanti lomānyevāsya sambharanti hiraṇmayā bhavanti tasyoktaṃ brāhmaṇamekaśatamekaśataṃ '''kācā'''nāvayanti śatāyurvai puruṣa ātmaikaśata āyuṣyevātmanpratitiṣṭhati..</blockquote>Taittriya brahmana also states that glass beads of various colors were used to decorate the manes and tails of horses.<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>यद् वालेषु काचान् आवयन्ति । .... हिरण्ययाः काचा भवन्ति । (Tait. Brah. 3.9.4.4-5)<ref>Taittriya Brahmana (See [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83) Kanda 3 Prapathaka 9 Anuvaka 4])</ref>

yad vāleṣu kācān āvayanti | .... hiraṇyayāḥ kācā bhavanti |</blockquote>According to a few scholars the manufacture of glass and colored glass is documented in ancient literature such as Ramayana, Mahabharata and ancient poetic works such as Bana's Kadambari. However, no glass objects have been recovered from Indus valley areas even though ancient Indian literature references are available. Kautilya in his Arthashastra while laying down rules for the Superintendent of the treasury talks about the identification of various kinds of gems and precious stones and mentions a few times about glass; in the context of testing gems to place them in jewelry, in trade and tax payments, robbery and fines.<ref>Krishnamurthy. Radha, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Dyes, Mordants and Pigments: Page 300 - 312)</ref>
*शेषाः काच-मणयः ।। ०२.११.३६ ।। (Arth. Shas. 2.11.36)<ref>Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Adhikarana 2 Adhyaya 11])</ref> rest are the glass gems.
*क्षेपणः काच-अर्पण-आदीनि ।। ०२.१३.३८ ।। (Arth. Shas. 2.13.38)<ref>Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Adhikarana 2 Adhyaya 13])</ref> Kshepana, guna, and kshudra are three kinds of ornamental work. Setting jewels (kácha, glass bead) in gold is termed kshepana.<ref>Shamasastry. R, ''Kautilya's Arthashastra with English Translation'' (Page 120)</ref>
*Evidence of trade of glass items<ref>Shamasastry. R, ''Kautilya's Arthashastra with English Translation'' (Page 343)</ref>
Glass (kacha) was differentiated from crystal (sphatika) as early as in the days of Susruta (Chap. 46). Archaeological evidences support the use of glass beads, bangles, jars, tiles etc. made from 6th or 5th century' B.C. onwards. Most of the glass objects were colored. Glass manufacture practiced as an indigenous industry in ancient India is seen in excavations particularly in the south (Arikamedu, Uraiyur). Along with this, the technique of coloring glass also developed. The glass specimens show that the glass makers of ancient India were highly competent in giving different colors and shades to glass objects. In the drama Vasavadatta (6th ceutury A.D.) mention has been made of glass colored like the neck of peacock.<ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref>

Chemical analysis revealed, just like in the case of pottery, that coloring agents were obtained from the metallic ores. Different chemicals added to them finally led to attribute different shades of colors and glazes to the glass objects. Colored glass was prepared by mixing silicates of soda, lime and appropriate metallic oxides.<ref>Jaggi, O.P. (1977) ''Science and Technology in Ancient India, New Delhi. Vol I'', p.203</ref> Copper oxide, iron oxide, manganese oxides were generally used to give colors to the glass articles as for pottery. A special type of glass beads of 350 A.D. to 750 A.D. found at Ahicchatra is of gold foil glass. Layers of gold foils were poured in between two glass layers. All these prove that craftsmen in ancient India were highly skillful in the sophisticated technique of using metallic ores and chemicals as pigments in coloring very high temperature melting media like glass.

Foreign travel accounts like Pliny’s Naturalis Historia (73—77 AD; translated by Bostock and Riley as The Natura1 History of Pliny in 1890), Periplus Maris Erythraei (considered to be earlier than Naturalis Historia; translated by Schoff as Periplus of the Erythrean Sea in 1912) and Geography of Strabo (17—23 AD); translated by Jones and cited in Majumdar 1960: 279, 394) considered Indian glass to be of high quality as it was made of pounded quartz rather than silica. It has long been suggested that this may have been the reason behind the high silica content in ancient Indian glass.<ref name=":0" />

=== Raw Materials, Coloring Agents ===
Iron containing minerals such as hematite, copper, cobalt, manganese, aluminum, or lead were used together with silicates in the desired manner and in suitable quantities to produce various types of glass beads, bracelets, tiles and bottles.<ref name=":5" />

Literature mentions the use of '''reh''' or sodic soils as the only ingredient necessary to melt glass as used by ancient Indians. Depending on the region, reh is likewise known as usar, kalar, and oos - designating either the efflorescence itself or the sodic-rich soil. Reh is a soil efflorescence containing huge quantities of sodium salts (carbonate, bicarbonate and sulphate) and ranging proportions of calcium and magnesium salts. The furnace used to soften reh glass became advanced indigenously and the related pyrotechniques have been a critical part of historic Indian knowledge.<ref name=":5" />

== Archeological Evidence of Glass ==
Many scholars agree that people of Indus Valley civilization may not know glass making<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> but some scholars have tried to trace the origin of Indian glass to the Harappan civilization on the basis of finding glazed pottery and quartz beads. Harappans made glazed pottery, which is ceramic with a thin layer of glass on the surface (Tite et al. 1983). Though no true glass has been found in India from the Protohistoric periods at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, the second millennium BCE saw its people able to mould and fuse excellent articles of faience and glazing their quartz beads with frit, a material similar to glass.<ref name=":0" /> Archeological excavations brought to light many glass objects - beads, bangles, seals and ornamental pieces - from sites such as Hastinapur, Ropar, Alamgirpur, Ahicchatra, Sravasti, Kausambi, Rajghat, Kopia, Ujjain, Maski, Kodapur, Amavarati, Patliputra, Arikamedu, Bellary, Kolhapur etc, among many other places. Some of the earliest objects mainly beads and bangles were brown, black and dark-green in color.<ref name=":2" /> Black and brownish colored glass beads found at Hastinapur are mainly of soda-lime-silicate composition with traces of phosphates and potassium, as well as with varying amounts of iron compounds which are responsible for their color. A number of glass beads of different shapes and colors like blue, red, green, amber, orange and black, dark green, ear-reels with a floral design, 'eye-beads', bangles and seals have been found in the Bhir mound at Takshashila (sixth-fourth century BC).<ref name=":4">Story of Glass in India & the World by Pankaj Goyal</ref>

Kopia situated on the bank of river Anoma in Basti, Uttar Pradesh, is the first archeological site where these is ample evidence of glass manufacture established according to carbon dating techniques. Chemical composition of the glass sample from Kopia records:<ref name=":5" /> Silica (66.6%), Aluminum Oxide (7%), alkali metal (Na2O) 21.7%, ferric oxide (1.6%), lime (2.4%), manganese oxide (0%) and traces of titanium, magnesium oxide and dioxide.

About 30 archaeological excavated sites in different regions of India have produced several glass objects in different colors such as green, blue, red, white, orange and some other shades, showing that Indian glassmakers knew the importance of metal oxides or other compounds to impart desired colors to glassware. In certain places, a few tiles and fragmented parts of vessels also have been found.<ref name=":4" /> Based on evidence, the knowledge of chemistry as known by ancient Indians included<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":2" />

* Soda is predominant alkali though potash is also present.
* Iron is the main coloring agent; chromium as colorant is also reported from Atranjikhera.
* Limited chemical analysis show they are low in silica
* Annealing is supposed to be have been done.

== Types of Ancient Glass ==
Ethnographic studies show that India had a unique way of making glass. Glassmakers had sufficient expertise in making beads, bracelets, and several other types. Glass products were made using methods such as moulding, folding, bending and double peeling; sometimes a method called wire wrapping was also used to prepare different types of beads. Moulding was one of the basic techniques used in India to prepare glass.<ref name=":5" /> Gold glass beads, green and blue glass, agate flasks, bracelets, earrings, eyeballs, etc. were widely used.

== References ==
[[Category:Chemistry]]

Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)

2025-06-06T15:05:33Z

Fordharma: /* पारद संस्काराः॥ Parada Sanskaras */

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Rasashastra (Samskrit रसशास्त्रम्) is one of the most popular pharmaceutical branch of Ayurveda medicine which deals with preparation of medicinal formulations containing mineral and animal sourced substances. It is also called as Iatrochemistry of Ayurveda. The branch of Rasashastra offers knowledge on methods of design, preparation, purification of these substances, their formulation methods and ways to make them bio-compatible, safe and effective as medicines. The term 'Rasa-shastra' literally means “Science of Mercury” since the purified and extensively processed mercury is one of the majorly used substance in Rasashastra. Entire science of Rasaashastra deals with use of processing techniques and methods to modify the bio-chemical and physical properties of the metal, mineral or animal origin substances. These alchemy methods make Rasashastra exclusive pharmaceutical branch and attract many people towards it. The medicinal substances obtained in classical way as described in Rasashastra have extensive therapeutic utility, safety and instantaneous efficacy even with smaller dosage.

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Medicines used in Ayurveda are sourced from plants, metals, minerals or animals. As per the principles of Ayurveda, there is not a single substance in the Universe which does not have a potential to be used as a drug, provided it is used judiciously by the learned [[Vaidya (वैद्यः)|vaidya]] (वैद्यः) at right place. The most valued classical treatises of Ayurveda the Brihatrayee (बृहत्रयी) and [[Laghutrayee (लघुत्रयी)|Laghutrayee]] (लघुत्रयी) mainly focus on use of plant derived medicines. However, some instances of use of medicinal substances derived from metals and animals are found at places. Development of Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्) took place in later times and use of metal, mineral and animal derived substances then became popular part in Ayurveda's pharmacotherapeutics.

The word Rasashaastra literally means the "Science of Mercury". It is a specialized branch of Ayurveda dealing mainly with materials which are known as 'Rasa dravyaas'. The products dealt under this discipline are an important component of Ayurvedic therapeutics.

== द्रव्यप्रकाराः॥Medicines used in Ayurveda ==
Ayurveda makes use of 3 types of medicinal substances classified as below on the basis of their source.<ref>Savrikar SS, Ravishankar B. Introduction to 'Rasashaastra' the Iatrochemistry of Ayurveda. ''Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med''. ;8(5 Suppl):66–82. doi:10.4314/ajtcam.v8i5S.1</ref>
# औद्भिद Audbhid : Plant derived substances e.g. leaves, barks, roots, stems, fruits, seeds, shoots etc. of herbs
# जाङ्‍गम Jangama : Animal derived substances e.g. milk, meat, blood, urine
# पार्थिव Parthiva : Metals and minerals derived substances e.g. Mercury, Sulfur, Iron, gold, silver, Arsenic etc.
Although the raw material from preparation of various medicinal formulations is obtained from these varied resources, it is used in medicines only after these undergo rigorous processing methods known as 'Samskaras' to remove their undesired and hazardous effects and enhance the organic nature to make them bio-compatible.<ref>Gandhi, Piyush. (2014). Marana-As a Bio-nanotechnology of Ayurveda. Research and Reviews: Journal of Ayurvedic Science, Yoga and Naturopathy. 1. 12-18.</ref>

== रसशास्त्रस्य इतिहास History of Rasashstra ==
Emergence of Ayurveda, its descent to earth and transfer of this knowledge through oral tradition are known to be the events from 'Vaidika era'. This was the time when all other classical treatises and mainly Vedas were developing. During this time, emphasis was given on strengthening and maintenance of the health by eliminating the harmful components from lifestyle to regain the original state of health and well-being. The objective of this system was to facilitate smooth passage of an individual towards ‘Moksha’. This was followed by the era of ‘Samhitas’, recognized by the works of great scholars of ‘Ayurveda’ like ‘Maharshi Punarvasu Atreya’ and his disciples ‘Agnivesha’, ‘Bhela’, 'Jatukarna', 'Parashara', 'Harita' etc. These ancient scholars although stressed the importance of maintenance of health like their predecessors, also expanded their vision to pharmaco-therapeutics. The therapeutic use of herbs, animal products and metals was extensively described in their works. However, more emphasis was given on the use of herbs and their variety of formulations while describing treatment for illness. Use of herbs as medicine was more popular since herbs being more familiar and assimilable in the human body. Animal products like milk and urine were primarily used while making formulations and also as an adjuvants for the medicine. Minerals and metals were also used but their use was not as extensive as herbs. Metals and minerals were considered difficult for absorption and assimilation and thus, they were purified, processed and their formulations were prepared along-with the the herbs. Intensive processing of metals and minerals ensured safety, bio-compatibility and efficacy.<ref />

It was from the time of the great Buddhist Sage Nagarjuna that, Rasashastra evolved as the specialized branch of Ayurveda medicine. Nagarjuna is considered as ‘Father of Rasashaastra’. He is known for his extraordinary efforts in experimenting with Mercury for its alchemic as well as therapeutic use. Ancient scholars, sages and seers in Bharatavarsha were not merely interested in using Mercury for alchemy but the main objective was to attain stability of the physical body. In order to attain Moksha one needs to follow the strenuous path of proposed by dharma. Having healthy and strong physical body free from diseases is the preliminary requirement for this. In an attempt to achieve this ancient scholars started experimenting with metals and minerals after realizing their stability on earth which was the desired outcome on their use. In today’s scientific parlance ‘Rasashastra’ can be equated with ‘Iatrochemistry’. Mercury is that miraculous mineral which attracted the attention of scholars even in the ancient times. Experimenting with this most unstable mineral was started to make it stable and keep it under control. Numerous processing techniques were developed to make it suitable for use in alchemy and also in medicine. In this way, with the advent of Mercury, known as 'Rasa' in samskrit, a new class of drugs termed as ‘Rasaushadhi’ (Rasa-aushadhi) with a new shastram termed as ‘Rasashastra’ appeared on the horizon of ‘Ayurvedic system of medicine’.<ref />

Development of Rasashastra as a part of Ayurveda medicine

‘Rasashastra’ comprises study of minerals and metals with reference to their identification, processing and formulations methods for their use as medicinal substances. This segment of Ayurveda is termed after name of 'Rasa' i.e. mercury since it is the most extensively discussed substance among all the mineral and metallic substances used in Rasashastra. Other substances studied under Rasashstra include sulfur, mica, arsenic, gems like pearls, metals like gold, silver, copper and many other substances. Treatment of minerals with herbs, animal products and other minerals or metals was carried out to make them suitable for use in alchemy and pharmaco-therapeutics. In ancient times, this knowledge was predominantly practiced by 'Tantra' sampradaya (community) who were the followers and devotees of 'Shiva'.{{Citation needed}} Later the physicians started use of ‘Rasaushadhi’ in the management of disease and such physicians were became popular as ‘Rasa-vaidya’ (Vaidyas using chiefly Rasa-aushadhis). <ref />

== रसोपरसाः॥ Medicinal substances used in Rasashastra ==
The mineral and metallic substances used in Rasashastra as medicinal substances are classified in different ways. Generally they are grouped in to four distinct classes as below,
# रसाः Rasa : The class of ‘Rasa’ is predominantly possessing ‘Rasayana’ (adaptogenic effect) effect.
# धातवः Dhaatu : Dhatus are grouped together on account of their capacity to provide structural strength to the body.
# रत्नानि Ratna : The minerals possessing gem quality are grouped as Ratna
# विषाणि Visha : Inherently highly poisonous plants are grouped as Visha.

=== Metals and Minerals ===
Following are the metallic and mineral substances used in Rasashstra medicines.<ref /> Ancient Rasavaidyas and Ayurveda scholars were successful in purifying and transforming all these substances into safe derivatives which could be administered easily in an oral dosage form. All of these are subjected to specific sanskaras before using them in medicinal formulations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Sr No
!Class of drugs
!Metals or minerals included in class
|-
|1
|Rasa (रसाः)
|The chief substance used in Rasashastra medicines. Rasa means Mercury. It is subjected to step-wise 8 different sanskaras before using in the medicinal formulation.
|-
|2
|Maharasa (महारसाः)
|This groups consists of Abhraka (Mica), Vaikranta (Tourmaline), Makshika (Copper Pyrite), Vimala (Iron Pyrite), Shilajit (Asphalt), Sasyaka (Blue Vitriol), Chapala (Bismuth), Rasaka (Calamine - Zinc ore)
|-
|3
|Uparasa (उपरसाः)
|Gandhaka (Sulphur), Gairika (Haematite), Kaasis (Green Vitriol), Kankshi (Alum), Haritala (Orpiment), Manasila (Realgar), Anjana (Stibnite's), Kamkusta (Gum exudates of Garcinia cambogia (Gaertn.) Desr)
|-
|4
|Sadharana Rasa (साधारण रसाः)
|Kampillaka (Glands and hairs of Mallotus philippinensis), Somala (Arsenic), Navasagara (Ammonium Chloride), Kapardika (Cowri), Agnijara (Amber), Girisindoora (Red Oxide of Mercury), Hingula (Cinnabar), Muddarashringa (Litharge)
|-
|5
|Dhatu (धातवः)
|Suvarna (Gold), Raupya (Silver), Tamra (Copper), Loha (Iron), Naga (Lead), Vanga (Tin), Yashada (Zinc)
|-
|6
|Upadhatu (उपधातवः)
|Suvarna Makshika (Copper Pyrite), Raupya Makshika (Iron Pyrite), Sasyaka (Blue Vitriol), Mandura (Iron Slag), Sindura (Red Lead Oxide), Rasaka (Calamine), Kamkusta (Gum exudates of Gambose tree)
|-
|7
|Ratna (रत्नानि)
|Manikya (Ruby), Mukta (Pearl), Prawala (Coral), Tarkshya (Emerald), Pusparaga (Topaz), Hiraka (Diamond), Neela (Sapphire), Gomeda (Zircon), Waidurya (Cat's Eye).
|-
|8
|Uparatna (उपरत्नानि)
|Vaikrant (Tourmaline), Suryakant (Sun stone), Candrakant (Moon stone), Rajawarta (Lapis Lazuli), Peroja (Turquoise) etc.
|-
|9
|Vishas and Upavishas (विषोपविषाणि)
|Vatsanabha (Aconite or Aconitum ferox), Arka (Calatropis procera), Snuhi (Euphorbia neriifolia) , Dhatura (Datura stramonium), Langali (Gloriosa superba), Karaveera (Neerium indicum), Gunja (Abrus precatorioius), Ahiphena (Papaver somniferum) etc.
|}

=== जाङ्‍गम द्रव्याणि ॥ Animal origin substances ===
Use of animal derived substances like milk, urine, meat, hairs and many other parts is done at many places in Ayurveda. Animal derived substances are used as food as well as medicine. When used as food they are suggested to be used on the basis of their properties which have been extensively described in classical treatises. Most of the times, purification or specific processing of food items is required. however, few animal derived substances which are widely used in Ayurveda as medicine are required to undergo specific processing methods in order to eliminate their harmful or undesired properties and make them safe, bio-compatible and effective as medicines.

Rasashastra offers knowledge of methods to purify and transform these substances into such forms in which these could be used as medicines safely and efficiently. Some substance have animal and mineral origin. Few animal derived substances used in Ayurveda medicine are listed below,
# Ajasthi - Goat's bones
# Kukkutandatwak - Hen's egg-shells
# Mrigashringa - Deer antlers
# Kurmaprishtha- Turtle shell
Apart from these exclusively animal derived substances, few substances which have animal as well as mineral origin like Shankha (Conch shell), Pravala (Coral), Mukta (Pearl), Mukta shukti (Pearl oyster shell) are also widely discussed and commonly used in practice of Ayurvediya medicine. Many of these substances have calcium as compound in form of salt thus they have been grouped together. This class of substances is known as 'Sudha varga' in Rasashstra. <ref>Dasari et al. Therapeutic potentials of Sudha varga Vis a vis Calcium compounds- A review, IRJP 2012; 3 (10)</ref>

== रसशास्त्रे संस्काराः॥ Samskaras in Rasashastra ==
In the context of pharmacology in Ayurveda, Samskaras refer to the processing methods employed to transform the properties of the substances. Such samskaras are performed specifically to remove undesired properties and enhance desirable qualities of the raw drugs used in formulations. Thus, samskaras represent one of the extremely important aspects in pharmacology of Ayurveda since this step facilitates safe and simple administration, metabolism, absorption and assimilation of even those inorganic metals, minerals or poisonous substances in the body which work as medicines.

In treatises on Rasashastra, various samskaras are described for purification of Mercury and other metals or minerals. It is believed that, metals have natural impurities called as ‘ Doshas’. Here, doshas literally mean fault/defect/harmful elements in the substance. Therefore, it becomes necessary to remove doshas of metals and minerals before their oral administration. In order to address these concerns most of the Rasashastra advise 2 common sanskaras (processes) to be conducted on all these inorganic substances used in medicines. These are Shodhana and Marana. Shodhana sanskara is primarily employed for purification or cleansing of the material while Marana sanskara is carried out using heat or fire after shodhana to make the purified substances suitable for oral consumption.
# Shodhana- Purification/cleansing and
# Marana- process by which metals and minerals are grinded with liquids and then dried and made into fine ash using heat/ Incineration process

== देहवादः तथा धातुवादः॥ Dehavada and Dhatuvada ==
[[Mercury or Parada (पारद)]] is utilized in Medicine and Alchemy.

Method of putting Mercury to medicinal use is known as ‘Deha vaada’ (Deha- Body, Vaada- science/knowledge).

Use of mercury in Alchemy is termed as ‘Dhaatu vaada’ (Dhatu-metals and minerals).

In medicine mercury is used (a) as a general medicine in diseased states and (b) as a ‘Rasayana’ (Rejuvenator) drug.

Dhatuvada is also known as Loha vedha. Loha vedha is known as the science exclusively in Rasashastra to convert lower metals to higher metals. <ref />

Dehavada is also known as Deha vedha. Deha vedha is the science that helps in making body strong like metal by using various Rasaushadhis (medicines prepared from metals and minerals) so as to make it capable to withstand all adversities encountered while achieving 4 types of [[Purushartha Drshti (पुरुषार्थदृष्टिः)|Purusharthas]]. <ref />

== पारद संस्काराः॥ Parada Sanskaras ==
Purification procedure of mercury depends on its intended use.

Simple procedures such as washing and grinding with plant juices like betel leaf juice, garlic paste and lime water are prescribed when mercury is to be used as a drug in diseased state. However intensive and complex processing is required when mercury is to be used as a ‘Rasayana’ (Rejuvenator medicinal substance) or it is to be used for the purpose of ‘Alchemy’.

Eight and eighteen independent procedures have to be carried out respectively for ‘Rasayana’ and ‘Alchemy’.

These procedures are grouped as 'Ashtasanskara’ comprising eight and ‘Ashtaadasha sanskara’ comprising eighteen independent procedures.

अष्टसंस्काराः Ashtasanskara : Ashta – 8

अष्टादशसंस्काराः Ashtaadasha sanskara : Ashtadasha- 18

== Safety of Rasa-aushasdhi (Rasashastra medicines) ==
(TBE) In Ayurveda, metals and minerals are used as a medication in the incinerated form which is called as Bhasma. Bhasma of gold contains nanoparticles of gold (56–57 nm).[4] These nanoparticles would reach the target site of action through blood after gastrointestinal uptake.[5] Acute toxicity studies of Swarna bhasma concluded that no mortality was found in mice up to 1 ml/20 g body weight of suspension containing 1 mg of Swarna bhasma. It was also found safe in chronic toxicity study.[6] Bhasma of Loha, Mandura, and Kasisa is comes under the umbrella of iron formulations. Lauha bhasma and Mandura bhasma are found safe at five times therapeutic effective dose in Charles Foster albino rats.[7] Bhasma of metals and minerals is the source of bioaccessible trace aliments. Swarna bhasma is reported to contain Arsenic (As) and Nb as trace elements[8] while Loha bhasma is reported to contain potassium (K), copper (cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and magnesium (Mg) in trace amount.[9] Some mercurial formulations such as Rasasindura, Rasakarpura, and Sameerpannagarasa have found safe at acute and chronic toxicity studies.[10] Herein, all the formulations prescribed dose of the gold, iron, and mercurial were too small and within the permissible limit.[11]

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Ayurveda]]