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→औपनिषदिककालः ॥ Upanishadic Age
Other forms of physical exercises, like aerobics, assure only physical well-being. They have little to do with the development of the spiritual or astral body. However, Yoga is a way of living that aims towards a healthy mind in a healthy body.<ref name=":0" />
Other forms of physical exercises, like aerobics, assure only physical well-being. They have little to do with the development of the spiritual or astral body. However, Yoga is a way of living that aims towards a healthy mind in a healthy body.<ref name=":0" />
At the transcendental level, the prime application of yoga is ego control. Such control/transcendence of the ego/ahamkara is believed to result in self-discovery, promote altruistic behavior and spread empathy with and love for others.<ref>K. Ramakrishna Rao & Anand C. Paranjpe (2016), Psychology in the Indian Tradition, India: Springer.</ref> {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YU5xaLcE2xo&feature=youtu.be
At the transcendental level, the prime application of yoga is ego control. Such control/transcendence of the ego/ahamkara is believed to result in self-discovery, promote altruistic behavior and spread empathy with and love for others.<ref name=":8">K. Ramakrishna Rao & Anand C. Paranjpe (2016), Psychology in the Indian Tradition, India: Springer.</ref> {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YU5xaLcE2xo&feature=youtu.be
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=== औपनिषदिककालः ॥ Upanishadic Age ===
=== औपनिषदिककालः ॥ Upanishadic Age ===
Upanishadic texts are the main source for the documented information about Yoga practices and related literature of this period. It is said that the Rishis slowly refined and developed Yoga and documented their practices and beliefs in the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]].<ref name=":0" />
Upanishadic texts are the main source for the documented information about Yoga practices and related literature of this period. It is said that the Rishis slowly refined and developed Yoga and documented their practices and beliefs in the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]].<ref name=":0" />
One of the earliest Upanishadic references to Yoga is found in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad. Here we find the description of the sitting posture, controlling the senses and breathing, restraining and concentration of mind. Significance of the Ashtanga yoga is suggested and requirements for the practice of yoga are highlighted.
त्रिरुन्नतं स्थाप्य समं शरीरं हृदीन्द्रियाणि मनसा सन्निवेश्य । ब्रह्मोडुपेन प्रतरेत विद्वान्स्रोतांसि सर्वाणि भयानकानि ॥ ८ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 2.8)<ref name=":9">Shvetashvatara Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 2])</ref>
Holding his body in a straight posture, holding the chest, neck, and head erect, and drawing the senses and the mind into the heart, the wise should cross over the fearful currents of the world by means of the raft of Brahman.
प्राणान्प्रपीड्येह स युक्तचेष्टः क्षीणे प्राणे नासिकयोच्छ्वसीत । दुष्टाश्वयुक्तमिव वाहमेनं विद्वान्मनो धारयेताप्रमत्तः ॥ ९ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 2.9)<ref name=":9" />
Controlling the senses, repressing and regulating the breathing, checking the movements of the body, gently breathing through the nostrils, the wise should undistractedly restrain his mind, that chariot yoked with vicious horses.
=== पतञ्जलेः कालः ॥ The Age of Patanjali ===
=== पतञ्जलेः कालः ॥ The Age of Patanjali ===
Good physical health can be achieved and maintained by observing rigidly the laws of health and the rules of hygiene, by taking wholesome l ight, substantial, easily digestible, nutritious, bland food or Sattvic diet, by inhaling pure air, by regular physical exercise, by daily cold bath, by observing moderation in eating and drinking. Good mental health can be attained and maintained by Japa, meditation, Brahmacharya, practice of Yama, Niyama and right conduct, right thinking, right feeling, right speaking and right action. Atmic Vichara, change of thought, relaxation of mind by dwelling the mind on pleasant thoughts, mental recreation and the practice of cheerfulness, etc.<ref name=":4" />
Good physical health can be achieved and maintained by observing rigidly the laws of health and the rules of hygiene, by taking wholesome l ight, substantial, easily digestible, nutritious, bland food or Sattvic diet, by inhaling pure air, by regular physical exercise, by daily cold bath, by observing moderation in eating and drinking. Good mental health can be attained and maintained by Japa, meditation, Brahmacharya, practice of Yama, Niyama and right conduct, right thinking, right feeling, right speaking and right action. Atmic Vichara, change of thought, relaxation of mind by dwelling the mind on pleasant thoughts, mental recreation and the practice of cheerfulness, etc.<ref name=":4" />
=== Yoga and Parapsychology ===
Extra-ordinary abilities (siddhis) such as telepathy and clairvoyance are believed to manifest during the practice of yoga. Maharshi Patañjali devotes a major part of Vibhūti Pāda, Part III of Yoga-Sūtras for describing a variety of paranormal phenomena. Braud (2008) has discussed at length the relevance of Yoga-Sūtras to parapsychology, the science that investigates paranormal phenomena. Braud describes how the psychophysical practices and principles contained in Yoga-Sūtras are supported by theory and research in parapsychology. There is indeed a great deal of empirical evidence suggestive, but by no means conclusive, of a positive relationship between practice of meditation and enhanced performance in parapsychological tests.
In an early review of research on meditation and psi (psychic ability), Honorton (1977) lists 16 studies. Out of these, nine experimental series gave significant evidence of psi among meditating subjects.<ref name=":8" />
=== Yoga and Emotional Effects ===
In a study of the effect of yoga practice on the neuroticism and anxiety scores of subjects, Kocher (1972) found that the subjects who practiced yoga obtained significantly lower scores on neuroticism, anxiety, and general hostility after 8 months of practice consisting of āsanas, prāṇāyāma, and kriyās (cleansing exercises). No such effects were observed in a control group of subjects who did not practice yoga.
Oak and Bhole (1982) also reported a decrement in neuroticism and anxiety scores among asthmatics undergoing yogic treatment.
In a study involving a sample of 356 nonclinical subjects, Vinod et al. (1991) reported significant effect of yoga on reducing anxiety.
According to Yoga, suffering is inherent in human existence and yoga practice is a way of overcoming it. The classical philosophical conception of suffering runs parallel to contemporary psychological notion of stress. Yoga may be seen as a method to develop strategies involving practice of detachment, desireless action, and focused attention, which are believed to lead to a stress-free state of equanimity. In the West it is the relation between the stressor and stress that is emphasized. Coping is seen as a moderating variable. The effects of stressor on the person are to some degree altered by the coping resources of the person. In the Indian tradition, it is the coping and not the stressor that is seen as the important factor in stress management. Desires and conflicts cause stress and suffering. Ego-centeredness is at the root of desires, which inevitably lead to conflicts. Therefore, ego-control/deconstruction and movement away from self-centeredness to altruism become the way to reduce suffering.<ref name=":8" />
== संहृतिः ॥ Synopsis ==
== संहृतिः ॥ Synopsis ==