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Line 282: − + − − {| class="wikitable" align="center" style=" background: transparent; " |+ The magic square within Sanskrit alphabet{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=477-479}} − |- style="background: #ffad66;" ! |Gutturals − | ka || kha || ga || gha || ṅa − |- style="background: #ffad66;" ! |Palatals − | ca || cha || ja || jha || ña − |- style="background: #ffad66;" ! |Retroflex − | ṭa || ṭha || ḍa || ḍha || ṇa − |- style="background: #ffad66;" ! |Dentals − | ta || tha || da || dha || na − |- style="background: #ffad66;" ! |Labials − | pa || pha || ba || bha || ma − |} Line 298:
Line 337: − ==Sound and alphabet== − Traditionally syllables (not letters) are called Akshara, meaning 'imperishable'. These aksharas are classified mainly into two types:<ref>Siddhanta Kaumudi by Bhattoji Diksita and Laghu Siddhanta Kaumudi by Varadaraja.</ref> − * '''Svara''' ([[Shiva Sutra|pratyahara]] ''aC''): [[Vowel]] − * '''Vyanjana''' (pratyahara ''haL''): [[Consonant]] − − ''Svara aksharas'' are also known as ''prana akshara''; i.e., they are main sounds in speech, without which speech is not possible. [[Pāṇini]] referred to ''svara'' as ''ac pratyahara''. Later they became known as ''ac Akshara''. − − ''Vyanjana'' means embellishment, i.e., consonants are used as embellishment in order to yield [[sonorant]] vowels. They are also known as ''Prani akshara''; that is, they are like a body to which life (''svara'') is added. Pāṇini's name for ''vyanjana'' was ''Hal Pratyahara'', which were later referred to as ''Hal akshara''. − − ''Vyanjana aksharas'' are divided into three types: − ** '''Sparsa''': [[Stop consonant|Stop]] − ** '''Antastha''': [[Approximant]] − ** '''Usman''': [[Sibilant]] − − ===Vowels=== − It was said that in Sanskrit a vowel can be pronounced in 18 ways (3×2×3), based on [[Timing (linguistics)|timing]], [[Manner of articulation|manner]], and [[Vedic accent|accent]] of pronunciation. − − Each vowel can be classified into three types based on the duration of pronunciation (''[[morae]]''): − * '''Hrasva''': [[Short vowel]], Eka-mātra − * '''Dīrgha''': [[Long vowel]], Dvi-mātra − * : Prolonged vowel, Tri-mātra () − We see that each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to the duration of articulation. − ×. The unit of time is a ''mātra'' (approx. 0.4 seconds). − − Each vowel can be further classified into two types based on the manner of pronunciation: − : '''Mukha''': [[Oral vowel|Oral]] (open) − : '''Nāsika''': [[Nasal vowel|Nasal]] (all vowels are considered phonemically oral) − − Each vowel can also be classified into three types, that is, pronounced in three ways, based on accent of articulation. This feature was lost in [[Classical Sanskrit]], but used in reciting [[Vedas|Vedic]] and [[Upanishad]]ic [[hymn]]s and [[mantra]]s. − : '''Udātta''': high pitch − : '''Anudātta''': low pitch − : '''Svarita''': descending pitch (usually follows high pitch) − − ==See also== − * [[Shiva Sutra]] − * [[Nandinagari]] − * [[Devanagari]] − * <references />+
→Varnas in Samskrit Language
==वर्णोत्पत्तिः ॥ Varnotpatti==
==वर्णोत्पत्तिः ॥ Varnotpatti==
Varnas are the fundamental speech units and they are produced (वर्णोत्पत्तिः) by a complex process involving the antaranga or inner mind combined with air and articulating organs. Panini shiksha and other texts describe the physiological process by which [[Origin and Propagation of Sound (शब्दोत्पत्तिः प्रसारश्च)|sound (or varnas here) is produced]] in the human being. According to Paniniya Shiksha, <blockquote>वर्णाञ्जनयते तेषां विभागः पञ्चधा स्मृतः।।9।। स्वरतः कालतः स्थानात्प्रयत्नानुप्रदानतः। इति वर्णविदः प्राहुर्निपुणं तन्निबोधत ।।10 (Pani. Shik<ref name=":0">Paniniya Shiksha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Full Text])</ref>) </blockquote>Varnas or Speech sounds are generated on the basis of the five following ways<ref name=":1" />
Varnas are the fundamental speech units and they are produced (वर्णोत्पत्तिः) by a complex process involving the antaranga or inner mind combined with air and articulating organs. Panini shiksha and other texts describe the physiological process by which [[Origin and Propagation of Sound (शब्दोत्पत्तिः प्रसारश्च)|sound (or varnas here) is produced]] in the human being. According to Paniniya Shiksha, <blockquote>वर्णाञ्जनयते तेषां विभागः पञ्चधा स्मृतः॥9॥ स्वरतः कालतः स्थानात्प्रयत्नानुप्रदानतः। इति वर्णविदः प्राहुर्निपुणं तन्निबोधत ॥10 (Pani. Shik<ref name=":0">Paniniya Shiksha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Full Text])</ref>) </blockquote>Varnas or Speech sounds are generated on the basis of the five following ways<ref name=":1" />
# स्वरः ॥ Svara (Accent or Pitch) are three in number: udātta, anudātta, and Svarita.
# स्वरः ॥ Svara (Accent or Pitch) are three in number: udātta, anudātta, and Svarita.
# मात्रा ॥ Matra (Quantity or time of utterance) are three in number: ह्रस्व (hrasva = short), दीर्घ (dīrgha = long) and प्लुत (pluta = longer)
# मात्रा ॥ Matra (Quantity or time of utterance) are three in number: ह्रस्व (hrasva = short), दीर्घ (dīrgha = long) and प्लुत (pluta = longer)
# स्थानम् ॥ Sthana (Place of articulation)
# स्थानम् ॥ Sthana (Place of articulation) are eight in number:
# प्रयत्नः ॥ Prayatna (Effort)
# प्रयत्नः ॥ Prayatna (Effort):
# अनुप्रदानम् ॥ Anupradana (Sound material)
# अनुप्रदानम् ॥ Anupradana (Sound material)
=== स्थानम् ॥ Sthana ===
=== स्थानम् ॥ Sthana ===
[[File:Positions in Mouth - Pronunciation.PNG|thumb|501x501px|Location of articulation of varnas in the mouth organ according to Panini]]
Sthanas are the places (or body parts which play a role in the production of sound) of articulation of varnas. Paniniya Shiksa defines eight places of articulation.<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>अष्टौ स्थानानि वर्णानामुरः कण्ठः शिरस्तथा। जिह्वामूलं च दन्ताश्च नासिकोष्ठौ च तालु च॥ १३ ॥ (Pani. Shik. 13)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭau sthānāni varṇānāmuraḥ kaṇṭhaḥ śirastathā । jihvāmūlaṃ ca dantāśca nāsikoṣṭhau ca tālu ca ॥ 13 ॥ </blockquote>There are eight places where letters are produced – chest, throat (pharynx), roof of palate, the root of the tongue, teeth, nose, both the lips and palate.
Sthanas are the places (or body parts which play a role in the production of sound) of articulation of varnas. Paniniya Shiksa defines eight places of articulation.<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>अष्टौ स्थानानि वर्णानामुरः कण्ठः शिरस्तथा। जिह्वामूलं च दन्ताश्च नासिकोष्ठौ च तालु च॥ १३ ॥ (Pani. Shik. 13)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>aṣṭau sthānāni varṇānāmuraḥ kaṇṭhaḥ śirastathā । jihvāmūlaṃ ca dantāśca nāsikoṣṭhau ca tālu ca ॥ 13 ॥ </blockquote>There are eight places where letters are produced – chest, throat (pharynx), roof of palate, the root of the tongue, teeth, nose, both the lips and palate.
==== Places of Articulation of Samskrit Varnas ====
==== Places of Articulation of Samskrit Varnas ====
In the following table, the short and long vowels are represented by the short vowel; i.e. अ (a) stands for आ (ā) as well, and similarly in the case of other vowels wherever applicable.
In the following table, the short and long vowels are represented by the short vowel; i.e. अ (a) stands for आ (ā) as well, and similarly in the case of other vowels wherever applicable.
{| class="wikitable" style="background: #ffad66;" -
{| class="wikitable" style="background: #ffad66;" -
!
!
!Letters
!Letters
!Place of Articulation
!Place of Articulation
!English Equivalent
!Panini Sutra
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|1
|1
kaṇṭhaḥ
kaṇṭhaḥ
|Guttural/Velar
|अकुहविसर्जनीयानां कण्ठः।
|- style="background: #f5f5f5;"
|- style="background: #f5f5f5;"
|2
|2
tālu
tālu
|Palatal
|इचुयशानां तालु।
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|3
|3
mūrdhā
mūrdhā
|Cerebral/Lingual/Retroflex
|ऋटुरषाणां मूर्धा।
|- style="background: #f5f5f5;"
|- style="background: #f5f5f5;"
|4
|4
dantāḥ
dantāḥ
|Dental
|ऌतुलसानां दन्ताः।
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|5
|5
oṣṭhau
oṣṭhau
|Labial
|उपूपध्मानीयानामोष्ठौ।
|- style="background: #f5f5f5;"
|- style="background: #f5f5f5;"
|6
|6
nāsikā ca
nāsikā ca
|Nasal
|ञमङणनानां नासिका च।
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|7
|7
kaṇṭhatālu
kaṇṭhatālu
|Gutturo-palatal
|एदैतोः कण्ठतालु।
|- style="background: #f5f5f5;"
|- style="background: #f5f5f5;"
|8
|8
kaṇṭhoṣṭham
kaṇṭhoṣṭham
|Gutturo-dental
|ओदौतोः कण्ठोष्ठम्।
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|9
|9
dantoṣṭham
dantoṣṭham
|Labio-dental
|वकारस्य दन्तोष्ठम्।
|- style="background: #f5f5f5;"
|- style="background: #f5f5f5;"
|10
|10
jihvāmūlam
jihvāmūlam
|
|
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|- style="background: #f0f8ff;"
|11
|11
nāsikā
nāsikā
|Nasal
|
|}
|}
<blockquote>हकारं पञ्चमैर्युक्तम् अन्तस्थाभिश्च संयुतम् । औरस्यं तं विजानीयात् कण्ठ्यमाहुरसंयुतम् ॥ पाणिनीयशिक्षा, १६ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>hakāraṃ pañcamairyuktam antasthābhiśca saṃyutam । aurasyaṃ taṃ vijānīyāt kaṇṭhyamāhurasaṃyutam ॥ (Pani. Shik. 16)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>The combinations of ह-'ha' and ङ-ṅa / ञ-ña / ण-ṇa / न-na / म-ma / य-ya / र-ra / ल-la / व-va, i.e. ह्ङ-hṅa, ह्ञ-hña, ह्ण-hṇa, ह्न-hna, ह्म-hma, ह्य-hya, ह्र-hra, ह्ल-hla and ह्व-hva, are to be pronounced from the chest. The lone 'ह-ha' is born in the throat. The combination of ha + ṅa and ha + ña (ह्ङ-hṅa and ह्ञ-hña) is not present in word usages. In words like aparāhṇa (अपराह्णः), madhyāhna (मद्याह्नः), brahma (ब्रह्मा), bāhya (बाह्या), hrada (ह्रद), prahlāda (प्रह्लादः) and āhvāna (आह्वानम्), 'ha' is to be pronounced carefully, i.e. it should come from the chest.
<blockquote>हकारं पञ्चमैर्युक्तम् अन्तस्थाभिश्च संयुतम् । औरस्यं तं विजानीयात् कण्ठ्यमाहुरसंयुतम् ॥ पाणिनीयशिक्षा, १६ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>hakāraṃ pañcamairyuktam antasthābhiśca saṃyutam । aurasyaṃ taṃ vijānīyāt kaṇṭhyamāhurasaṃyutam ॥ (Pani. Shik. 16)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>The combinations of ह-'ha' and ङ-ṅa / ञ-ña / ण-ṇa / न-na / म-ma / य-ya / र-ra / ल-la / व-va, i.e. ह्ङ-hṅa, ह्ञ-hña, ह्ण-hṇa, ह्न-hna, ह्म-hma, ह्य-hya, ह्र-hra, ह्ल-hla and ह्व-hva, are to be pronounced from the chest. The lone 'ह-ha' is born in the throat. The combination of ha + ṅa and ha + ña (ह्ङ-hṅa and ह्ञ-hña) is not present in word usages. In words like aparāhṇa (अपराह्णः), madhyāhna (मद्याह्नः), brahma (ब्रह्मा), bāhya (बाह्या), hrada (ह्रद), prahlāda (प्रह्लादः) and āhvāna (आह्वानम्), 'ha' is to be pronounced carefully, i.e. it should come from the chest.
According to Yajnavalkya Shiksha varnas are classified into four.
According to Yajnavalkya Shiksha varnas are classified into four.
<div style="column-count:2;-moz-column-count:2;-webkit-column-count:2">
<div style="column-count:2;-moz-column-count:2;-webkit-column-count:2">
# स्वराः (Svaras)
# स्वराः (Svaras) (9 Vowels)
# स्पर्शाः (Sparsha)
# स्पर्शाः (Sparsha) (25)
# अन्तस्थाः (Antastha)
# अन्तस्थाः (Antastha) (4)
# ऊष्माणः (Ushmana)
# ऊष्माणः (Ushmana) (4)
</div>
</div>
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Samskrit Varnas
|+Samskrit Varnas (9 Vowels and 33 Consonants)
!
!
!Varnas
!Varnas
|ya ra la va śa ṣa sa ha
|ya ra la va śa ṣa sa ha
|}
|}
As explained in the previous section syllables (not letters) were called Akshara, meaning 'imperishable'. The aksharas or varnas are classified mainly into two types:<ref>Siddhanta Kaumudi by Bhattoji Diksita and Laghu Siddhanta Kaumudi by Varadaraja.</ref>
* '''Svara''' (अचः) or Vowels which are 9 in number
* '''Vyanjana''' (हल्) or Consonants which are 33 in number
==== वृत्तिः॥ Vṛtti ====
''Svara aksharas'' are also known as ''prana akshara''; i.e., they are the main sounds in speech, without which speech is not possible. The term Svara here refers to the Varna and is not to be confused with accent or pitch which is also called Svara. ''Vyanjana'', i.e., consonants are incomplete and associate with vowels for pronunciation. They are also known as ''Prani akshara''; that is, they are like a body to which life (''svara'') is added. They include the rest of the three types apart from Svaras varnas namely '''Sparsa''' (mentioned as Stop), '''Antastha''' and '''Ushmana'''.
A vowel is pronounced in 18 ways (3×2×3), based on matra (time), its organ, and svara (accent) of pronunciation. However, there are some modifications. We get 18 ways of pronunciation for अ इ उ ऋ, ऌ has no Dirgha (2x2x3 = 12 ways), ए ओ ऐ औ has no Hrasva, so we get (2x2x3) twelve ways.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Factors involved in Vowel Pronunciation
!Matra (मात्रा )
unit of time is a ''mātra''
|
* '''Hrasva''': Short vowel, Eka-mātra
* '''Dīrgha''': Long vowel, Dvi-mātra
* : Prolonged vowel, Tri-mātra
|-
!Organ involved in pronunciation
|
* '''Mukha''': Oral (open)
* '''Nāsika''': Nasal
|-
!Svaras (Accent or Pitch)
|
* '''Udātta''': high pitch
* '''Anudātta''': low pitch
* '''Svarita''': descending pitch
|}
==== वृत्तिः॥Vṛtti ====
Nāradīyaśikṣā prescribes three vṛttis (procedures) called druta (द्रुता । quick), madhyama (मध्यमा । medium) and vilambita (विलम्बितम् । slow) that are useful in articulation of speech: <blockquote>अभ्यासार्थं द्रुतां वृत्तिं प्रयोगार्थे तु मध्यमाम् । शिष्याणामुपदेशार्थे कुर्याद्वृत्तिं विलम्बितम् ॥ २१ ॥ (Nara. Shik. 21)</blockquote><blockquote>abhyāsārthaṃ drutāṃ vṛttiṃ prayogārthe tu madhyamām । śiṣyāṇāmupadeśārthe kuryādvṛttiṃ vilambitam ॥ 21 ॥</blockquote>For practicing or recitation Drutavṛtti, for conversation Madhyama, and for teaching students vilambita vrtti are to be employed. In drutavṛtti, nine drops flow out of suṣumnā nāḍī, in madhyamā, twelve drops and in vilambita, sixteen drops are said to flow out of suṣumnā nāḍī.
Nāradīyaśikṣā prescribes three vṛttis (procedures) called druta (द्रुता । quick), madhyama (मध्यमा । medium) and vilambita (विलम्बितम् । slow) that are useful in articulation of speech: <blockquote>अभ्यासार्थं द्रुतां वृत्तिं प्रयोगार्थे तु मध्यमाम् । शिष्याणामुपदेशार्थे कुर्याद्वृत्तिं विलम्बितम् ॥ २१ ॥ (Nara. Shik. 21)</blockquote><blockquote>abhyāsārthaṃ drutāṃ vṛttiṃ prayogārthe tu madhyamām । śiṣyāṇāmupadeśārthe kuryādvṛttiṃ vilambitam ॥ 21 ॥</blockquote>For practicing or recitation Drutavṛtti, for conversation Madhyama, and for teaching students vilambita vrtti are to be employed. In drutavṛtti, nine drops flow out of suṣumnā nāḍī, in madhyamā, twelve drops and in vilambita, sixteen drops are said to flow out of suṣumnā nāḍī.
* Atharvaveda-Pratishakhya (Shaunakiya shakha)
* Atharvaveda-Pratishakhya (Shaunakiya shakha)
The Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakhyas led to great clarity in understanding the surface structure of language. For clarity of pronunciation, they broke up the large Vedic compounded structures into word stems, prefixes, and suffixes. Certain styles of recitation, such as the vikriti pathas'','' involved switching syllables, repeating the last word of a line at the beginning of the next, and other permutations. In the process, a considerable amount of morphology is discussed, particularly regarding the combination of sequential sounds, which leads to the modalities of sandhi. The Samaveda Pratishakhya, one of the earliest, organizes the stop consonant sounds into a 5x5 ''varga'' or square:
The Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakhyas led to great clarity in understanding the surface structure of language. For clarity of pronunciation, they broke up the large Vedic compounded structures into word stems, prefixes, and suffixes. Certain styles of recitation, such as the vikriti pathas'','' involved switching syllables, repeating the last word of a line at the beginning of the next, and other permutations. In the process, a considerable amount of morphology is discussed, particularly regarding the combination of sequential sounds, which leads to the modalities of sandhi.
==Shiksha Granthas==
==Shiksha Granthas==
Although many of these Shiksha texts are attached to specific Vedic schools, others are later day texts.
Although many of these Shiksha texts are attached to specific Vedic schools, others are later day texts.
Sparsa aksharas include syllables from ''ka'' to ''ma''; they are 25 in number. Antastha aksharas include syllables ''ya'', ''ra'', ''la'' and ''va''. Usman aksharas include ''śa'', ''ṣa'', ''sa'' and ''ha''.
Sparsa aksharas include syllables from ''ka'' to ''ma''; they are 25 in number. Antastha aksharas include syllables ''ya'', ''ra'', ''la'' and ''va''. Usman aksharas include ''śa'', ''ṣa'', ''sa'' and ''ha''.
==References==
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Vedangas]]
[[Category:Vedangas]]