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Line 51: − + − ==Jiva - A Composite of Sharira, Manas and Atman==+ − A human being is not merely confined to the appearance it projects, that is, the physical contours and aspects of the body. It is a collection of three bodies (sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) encompassing the gross elements to the subtle layers of the mind that act as encasements for the true Self. The Taittiriya Upanishad presents the Vedic conceptualization of the mind-body complex, i.e., jiva.<ref name=":4">Dagar, C and Pandey, A. (2020) ''Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda''. Switzerland: Springer Nature</ref> − + − *'''Body''' refers to the nervous system, the senses ([https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Indriyas_(%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF) Indriyas]), and associated structures connected with the brain. Body is the source of natural appetites, which translate themselves into desires, urges, cravings, and longings in the mind.+ − *'''Mind''' ([https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Manas_(%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%83) manas]) is the hypothetical cognitive instrument related to the body at one end and consciousness at the other. − *'''Consciousness''' is conceived to be irreducibly distinct from body and mind. It constitutes the nonphysical aspect of the person. It is the source of subjectivity and the very base of one’s experience of being, knowing, and feeling. − From the functional point of view a person functions at three different levels using the above three parts of the composite.<ref name=":14" /> − *A person is capable of processing information from the sense-organs through the instrumentalities of the body. This may be called the level of ''observation''. Thus the sense organs are data collection points situated in the gross aspect of Jiva, namely the body. − *A person is capable of thinking, feeling and acting based on the mind's processing of information received from the sense-organs. This level of ''understanding'' is facilitated by the functioning of the mind. The mind is the data processor situated in the subtle aspect of Jiva. − *A person's mental faculties after appropriate sadhana, participate with the consciousness as-such (the Atman) relatively, if not absolutely, free from the bodily processes or their influence. This level is transcognitive realization of truth. In such a state, a person experiences the ''consciousness'' as-such, becomes aware of the truth ''self'', and of what is real. − The concepts of shravana (literally hearing, but can be equated with observation in general), manana (thinking/understanding), and nididhyasana (meditative realization) roughly correspond to the three levels of knowing. At the level of shravana and manana, observations and understanding, there is a basic distinction between subject and object and thought and action. Knowing and being are dissociated. In meditative realization, a state achieved by nidhidhyasana, the distinction between subject and object disappears; thought and action, knowing and being blend into each other.<ref name=":14" /> − Body, mind, and consciousness are not only conceptually distinct, but are also mutually irreducible in the human context. Consciousness is qualitatively different from the body and the mind with which it may be associated. For this reason, though it is associated with a mind at a given time, it does not interact with it. The body and the mind, unlike consciousness, are physical; and they can interact with each other and are influenced by each other. However, it is important to note that a mind cannot be reduced into its physical constituents and a body cannot be transformed into a mind even though they influence each other within a person. They function differently. From this perspective, the body is conceived as gross matter that permits disintegration. However, mind being a subtle form of matter is not constrained by spatiotemporal variables in the same manner as the gross body does. The body disintegrates irretrievably at death. The mind, however, has the potential to survive bodily death.<ref name=":14" /> − ==Indian Concept of Self== − [[File:Indian-concept-of-self-Physical-social-psychological-and-metaphysical.png|right|frameless|394x394px|link=https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/File:Indian-concept-of-self-Physical-social-psychological-and-metaphysical.png]] − + − + Line 69:
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Line 139: − + − ==Concept of Self in Indian Tradition==+ − ===Panchakosha model of self===+ − Line 151:
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Line 175: − ==Sadhana and The Psychological Self== − The inwardly directed individual Self perceives vaguely its latent infinitude and realises gradually that its limitation and bondage are not inherent in its nature but are rather imposed on it, and wants somehow to shake them off and thus realise its full autonomy. Liberation or vimukti is identical with freedom, and freedom is expansion. It is the gross outward matter and contact with matter that have made the Self appear limited. The deeper and deeper we dive into Self, the more of expansion, freedom and light do we feel and enjoy. The conscious urge of the finite to become more and more expanded till it realises its infinitude is what is really meant by mumukshutva (desire for liberation) which forms the unmistakable first step in the course of, Sadhana.<ref name=":5">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Page 61-75)</ref> − ==Sadhana Margas== − ====Karma Marga==== − The earliest form of [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Sadhana_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) Sadhana] advocated by the Vedas is [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Karma_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE) Karma]. Of the [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Shad_Darshanas_(%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF) six astika darshanas], Purva Mimamsa engaged with the Karma philosophy. The term Karma, however, was used in a limited sense to denote the various yajnas. In a broad sense, it includes all actions, physical and psychical, although it is usually limited to bodily actions.<ref>Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 91- )</ref> − ====Jnana Marga==== − The objective of life is to experience the ultimate ontological truth - Self is Brahman - and the way to pursue it is through vairagya (renunciation) captured by the attributes of knowledge (Sadhana by Jnana-marga) is presented in the thirteenth adhyaya of Bhagavadgita. In other words, epistemology or the Indian theory of knowledge is to be able to live and experience the ontological belief that brahman is in everything in the universe, and it is practiced through a meticulous lifestyle filled with positivity.<ref name=":6">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 170-171)</ref> − − Bhagavadgita presents the all positive psychological elements or characteristics that everyone needs to cultivate to be able to learn the knowledge of Brahman. These elements of Jnana include<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अमानित्वमदम्भित्वमहिंसा क्षान्तिरार्जवम् । आचार्योपासनं शौचं स्थैर्यमात्मविनिग्रहः ॥ १३-८॥ − − इन्द्रियार्थेषु वैराग्यमनहङ्कार एव च । जन्ममृत्युजराव्याधिदुःखदोषानुदर्शनम् ॥ १३-९॥ − − असक्तिरनभिष्वङ्गः पुत्रदारगृहादिषु । नित्यं च समचित्तत्वमिष्टानिष्टोपपत्तिषु ॥ १३-१०॥ − − मयि चानन्ययोगेन भक्तिरव्यभिचारिणी । विविक्तदेशसेवित्वमरतिर्जनसंसदि ॥ १३-११॥ − अध्यात्मज्ञाननित्यत्वं तत्त्वज्ञानार्थदर्शनम् । एतज्ज्ञानमिति प्रोक्तमज्ञानं यदतोऽन्यथा ॥ १३-१२॥ Bhaga. Gita. 13. 8-12)</blockquote>Shri Krishna lists that the characteristics mentioned (in these shlokas) constitute Jnana and those opposite to these are termed as Ajnana.<ref name=":6" /> − #अमानित्वम् ॥ humility − #अदम्भित्वम् ॥ pridelessness − #अहिंसा ॥ nonviolence − #क्षान्तिः ॥ tolerance − #आर्जवम् ॥ simplicity − #आचार्योपासनम् ॥ service to a spiritual teacher − #शौचम् ॥ cleanliness − #स्थैर्यम् ॥ steadfastness − #आत्मविनिग्रहः ॥ self-control − #इन्द्रियार्थेषु वैराग्यम् ॥ desirelessness in the sense pleasures − #अनहङ्कारः ॥ without ego − #जन्ममृत्युजराव्याधिदुःखदोषानुदर्शनम् ॥ remembering the problems of birth, death, old age, disease, and miseries that go with the physical body (to motivate oneself to think about the Atman) − #असक्तिः ॥ without attachment − #पुत्रदारगृहादिषु अनभिष्वङ्गः ॥ without fondness towards son, wife, or home etc. − #नित्यं च समचित्तत्वमिष्टानिष्टोपपत्तिषु ॥ constancy in a balanced manas or citta (or mind) or having equanimity of the mind in attainment of favorable or unfavorable consequences − #विविक्तदेशसेवित्वमरतिर्जनसंसदि ॥ preferring solitude having no desire to associate with people − #मयि चानन्ययोगेन भक्तिरव्यभिचारिणी ॥ unwavering offering of unalloyed devotion to kRSNa − #अध्यात्मज्ञाननित्यत्वम् ॥ Constant dwelling on the knowledge pertaining to the Self − #तत्त्वज्ञानार्थदर्शनम् ॥ Contemplation (on the goal) for the attainment of knowledge of the truth − ====Bhakti Marga====
Added illustration
Study of self in the Indian traditions, reveals that the core of Indian self is metaphysical, and it has been the focus of study by philosophers as well as contemporary psychologists. In the Indian worldview, a person is not limited to the physical body, but has multiple perspectives. There is a general agreement that the metaphysical self, Atman, is the real ''self''. The rich indigenous concept of self has significant insights that would be missed by merely following the Western psychological approach employed in the study of self.<ref name=":08">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 65 - 91)</ref>
Study of self in the Indian traditions, reveals that the core of Indian self is metaphysical, and it has been the focus of study by philosophers as well as contemporary psychologists. [[File:Indian-concept-of-self-Physical-social-psychological-and-metaphysical.png|right|frameless|394x394px|link=https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/File:Indian-concept-of-self-Physical-social-psychological-and-metaphysical.png|alt=|Courtesy: Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita. (Page 72)]]In the Indian worldview, a person is not limited to the physical body, but has multiple perspectives. There is a general agreement that the metaphysical self, Atman, is the real ''self''. The rich indigenous concept of self has significant insights that would be missed by merely following the Western psychological approach employed in the study of self.<ref name=":08">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 65 - 91)</ref>
== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
= Defining Self =
= Defining Self =
Inquiry concerning human nature has centered on the fundamental question 'who am I'. Attempts at answering this question have progressed in two distinct directions viz., inwardly through introspection and intuition and outwardly in terms of empiricism and intellectual understanding. While modern psychology has relied exclusively on empiricism and intellectual analysis, in the Indian tradition both the methods have been employed.<ref name=":0">Salagame, Kiran Kumar. "''[https://www.academia.edu/39365212/Concept_Ahamkara_Theoretical_and_Empirical_Analysis Concept Ahamkara: Theoretical and Empirical Analysis.]''” In K. R. Rao & S. B. Marwaha (Eds.) ''Towards a spiritual psychology: Essays in Indian Psychology.'' (pp. 97-122). New Delhi: Samvad India Foundation. 2005. </ref>
# The 'empirical level' at which the '''subject-object distinction operates.''' This characterizes almost all of human experiences be it of ordinary waking state, of dream, of paranormal experiences, of pathological states, etc.
# The 'transcendental level' at which the '''subject-object distinction is transcended'''. This characterizes what is usually referred to as spiritual or mystical and beyond comprehension for our ordinary waking consciousness.
While most modern psychologists have limited their understanding and discussion of self and identity to empirical level and that too of ordinary waking state, the rishis have taken into account all possible human experiences and states in their discussion and explication of the human nature, of identity and self.<ref name=":0" />
===Western Tradition===
===Western Tradition===
Seminal contributions in defining selfhood came from the works of William James, C. H. Cooley, G. H. Mead, and Freud, whose ideas have continued to the revival in psychological studies of selfhood and related topics. Many other Enlightenment thinkers such as David Hume, Leibniz, Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Skinner and later on Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg to name a few, denied or affirmed the existence of Self and proposed modern theories about self and knowledge. In the present article only those western perspectives which are similar to the Upanishadic concepts have been discussed as they pertain to the scope of the topic.<ref name=":22" />
Seminal contributions in defining selfhood came from the works of William James, C. H. Cooley, G. H. Mead, and Freud, whose ideas have continued to the revival in psychological studies of selfhood and related topics. Many other Enlightenment thinkers such as David Hume, Leibniz, Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Skinner and later on Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg to name a few, denied or affirmed the existence of Self and proposed modern theories about self and knowledge. In the present article only those western perspectives which are similar to the Upanishadic concepts have been discussed as they pertain to the scope of the topic.<ref name=":22" />
===Indian Tradition===
===Indian Tradition===
Many Indian and Western scholars, in the recent decades have studied and presented the concept of self based on Indian perspectives given in the [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/The_Four_Vedas_(%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%83) Vedas], [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Varnashrama_Dharma_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) varna and ashrama dharmas], [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Samskaras_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%83) samskaras], in the philosophical texts such as the [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Shad_Darshanas_(%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF) shad-darshanas], the Brahmasutras, the [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Upanishads_(%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Upanishads], the Itihasas, the Puranas, and Tantras etc., all of which influence the Indian psychological make-up.<ref name=":08" />
[[File:Self and identity in Indian Thought.png|right|frameless|532x532px]]
In the Indian tradition, the experience of personal identity or the self-sense generically, is designated in Sanskrit as ''aham (अहम्)'', which is equivalent to "I" of English language. So, in the question 'Who am I', the I-feeling whose nature the questioner is interested in is ''aham (अहम्)'' and it is considered as a function of the mind or mental apparatus known as '''antahkarana''' (internal organ). In the ontological sense (ontology is the study of the nature of being), aham represents 'being'. The function is known as '''ahamkara''' and at psychological level it refers to all our day-to-day feelings and thoughts about ourselves. However, there are many concepts related to identity and self other than, ''aham''. They are: Atman (आत्मन्), Purusha (पुरुषः), Jiva (जीवः), Dehin (देहिन्), Ksetrajña (क्षेत्रज्ञः), Ahamkara (अहंकारम्), Ahambhava (अहंभावम्), Asmita (अस्मित), Jnata (ज्ञाता), Bhokta (भोक्ता), and Karta (कर्ता), which are used in different contexts with specific meaning and significance. Since Upanishads declare that transcendent Self, Atman is identical with the highest principle of the universe, Brahman, (ayam atma brahma), Upanishads also declare that this self is Brahman or ―I am Brahman (aham brahmasmi).<ref name=":0" />
Many Indian and Western scholars, in the recent decades have studied and presented the concept of self based on Indian perspectives given in the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]], [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|varna and ashrama dharmas]], [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|samskaras]], in the philosophical texts such as the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|shad-darshanas]], the Brahmasutras, the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], the Itihasas, the Puranas, and Tantras etc., all of which influence the Indian psychological make-up.<ref name=":08" />
In Kathopanishad, the nature of Self is summarized by Yama as the eternal principle in person that never changes.<ref name=":32">Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 116 - 122)</ref><blockquote>''"This principle, Yama says, is tinier than the atom and larger than the largest of things, it is the One underlying the Many, the Permanent (nitya) behind the Ephemeral (anitya) in the entire universe. It cannot be divided or destroyed; the Self is not killed by the destruction of the body. It is by knowing the changeless Self behind all the changes that one attains immortality."''</blockquote>A few important Upanishadic references dealing with the two central topics of inquiry: the nature of the Self and the nature of reality as a whole, are mentioned below.<ref name=":32" />
In Kathopanishad, the nature of Self is summarized by Yama as the eternal principle in person that never changes.<ref name=":32">Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 116 - 122)</ref><blockquote>''"This principle, Yama says, is tinier than the atom and larger than the largest of things, it is the One underlying the Many, the Permanent (nitya) behind the Ephemeral (anitya) in the entire universe. It cannot be divided or destroyed; the Self is not killed by the destruction of the body. It is by knowing the changeless Self behind all the changes that one attains immortality."''</blockquote>A few important Upanishadic references dealing with the two central topics of inquiry: the nature of the Self and the nature of reality as a whole, are mentioned below.<ref name=":32" />
#[https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Yajnavalkya_Maitreyi_samvada_(%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Yajnavalkya Maitreyi Samvada] in '''Brhdaranyaka Upanishad''' (2.3.1-14; 4.5.1-15) which is the dialogue about the nature of Self.
#[[Yajnavalkya Maitreyi samvada (याज्ञवल्क्यमैत्रेय्योः संवादः)|Yajnavalkya Maitreyi Samvada]] in '''Brhdaranyaka Upanishad''' (2.3.1-14; 4.5.1-15) which is the dialogue about the nature of Self.
#'''Svetashvatara Upanishad''' where the nature of self and reality, the origin of the world, Brahman etc., are discussed. Self is referred to as an enjoyer and sufferer in life (bhokta).
#'''Svetashvatara Upanishad''' where the nature of self and reality, the origin of the world, Brahman etc., are discussed. Self is referred to as an enjoyer and sufferer in life (bhokta).
#[https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Yama_Nachiketa_Samvada_(%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Yama Nachiketa Samvada] in '''Kathopanishad''' where the nature of self is described. Self is experienced when, through the practice of Yoga, the five senses are held back, the mind is undistracted, and the intellect is stabilized.
#[[Yama Nachiketa Samvada (यमनचिकेतसोः संवादः)|Yama Nachiketa Samvada]] in '''Kathopanishad''' where the nature of self is described. Self is experienced when, through the practice of Yoga, the five senses are held back, the mind is undistracted, and the intellect is stabilized.
#'''Taittriya Upanishad''' (2.1) describes that the Brahman is to be attained through the realization of the Self as the Truth (satyam), Knowledge (jñanam), and Infinite (anantam). It further describes the nature of self as consisting of Ananda (Tait. Upan. 2.5).
#'''Taittriya Upanishad''' (2.1) describes that the Brahman is to be attained through the realization of the Self as the Truth (satyam), Knowledge (jñanam), and Infinite (anantam). It further describes the nature of self as consisting of Ananda (Tait. Upan. 2.5).
#'''Mandukya Upanishad''' (12 mantras) declares that self is identical with the Brahman. It describes the mode of knowing self, and distinguishing the various states of consciousness viz., wakeful state, dream state, deep sleep state, turiya or fourth state.
#'''Mandukya Upanishad''' (12 mantras) declares that self is identical with the Brahman. It describes the mode of knowing self, and distinguishing the various states of consciousness viz., wakeful state, dream state, deep sleep state, turiya or fourth state.
In many texts we find the two related terms “consciousness” and “self” used and expressed in various ways. In this section, the two concepts are clarified, the different senses they convey and their notations are discussed.<ref>Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 94)</ref>
In many texts we find the two related terms “consciousness” and “self” used and expressed in various ways. In this section, the two concepts are clarified, the different senses they convey and their notations are discussed.<ref>Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 94)</ref>
#'''Self''' (with a capital "S") at the universal level: Absolute and universal (as Brahman in Advaita). The Upanishadic conception of the Brahman is that it is Consciousness and Supreme Self at the same time. Consciousness and Self are considered in their most abstract and universal form.
#'''Self''' (with a capital "S") at the universal level: Absolute and universal (as Brahman in Advaita). The Upanishadic conception of the Brahman is that it is Consciousness and Supreme Self at the same time. Consciousness and Self are considered in their most abstract and universal form.
#'''''self''''' (with a lower case "s" and italicized) at an individual level: ''consciousness'' as-such, at the level of the individual - without having the role of an agent (as purusha in Samkhya-Yoga), - in the role of a witness (as [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Atman_(%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D) atman] or sakshin in Vedanta).
#'''''self''''' (with a lower case "s" and italicized) at an individual level: ''consciousness'' as-such, at the level of the individual - without having the role of an agent (as purusha in Samkhya-Yoga), - in the role of a witness (as atman or sakshin in Vedanta).
#'''self''' (with a lower case "s") at the bodily level: A person who wills, acts and feels, the Jīva (empirical self) in Advaita. Jiva is embodied consciousness, whereas jiva-sākṣin (as in ''self'') is the witnessing ''consciousness''. The term “self” may be used in a general nonspecific sense to refer to self at all its levels, where a distinction is not warranted.
#'''self''' (with a lower case "s") at the bodily level: A person who wills, acts and feels, the Jīva (empirical self) in Advaita. Jiva is embodied consciousness, whereas jiva-sākṣin (as in ''self'') is the witnessing ''consciousness''. The term “self” may be used in a general nonspecific sense to refer to self at all its levels, where a distinction is not warranted.
[[File:9. for article Conceptualization of Self - Indian and Western Perspectives .png|thumb|383x383px|'''<big>Indian Concept of Self</big>''']]
Indian psychology involves the study of the [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Jiva_(%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%83) Jiva (जीवः)] referred to in Vedanta, as a composite human being. Jīva, which literally means a living being, is often used in Indian thought as a technical term that is the closest to what is called “person” in contemporary psychology. As per Vedanta, a jiva is conceived as a multilayered entity, consisting of body ([https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Sharira_(%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) Sharira]), mind ([https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Manas_(%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%83) Manas]), and consciousness ([https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Atman_(%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D) Atman]). Jiva is the knower (jñātā), enjoyer/sufferer (bhoktā), and agent of action (kartā). [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Ayurveda_(%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83) Ayurveda] texts present a similar definition of a person. With regard to the role of the constituents in psychological aspects, we have the following activities for each of the layers of the Jiva.<ref name=":14">Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 5 - 9)</ref>
==Indian Concept of Self==
[[Jiva (जीवः)]], which literally means a living being, is often used in Indian thought as a technical term that is the closest to what is called “person” in contemporary psychology. Jīva is often mentioned in several Upanishads.<ref>Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 129 - 133)</ref>
===Metaphysical and Physical Self===
===Metaphysical and Physical Self===
In previous section we saw how the Jīva or the person, is a unique composite of consciousness, mind, and body. A review of the study of self in India reveals that indeed the core of Indian ''self'' is metaphysical, and it has been the focus of study by philosophers as well as psychologists. Thus we find a general agreement that the '''metaphysical ''self'', [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Atman_(%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D) Atman]''', is the real Self and it is embodied in a biological or physical body of the composite '''[https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Jiva_(%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%83) Jiva (जीवः)]'''. This core distinction of Jiva from a mere human body is reflected in the treatment methods adopted in Ayurveda unlike those in modern medicine where a person is limited to a physical self.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":08" />
In previous section we saw how the Jīva or the person, is a unique composite of consciousness, mind, and body. A review of the study of self in India reveals that indeed the core of Indian ''self'' is metaphysical, and it has been the focus of study by philosophers as well as psychologists. Thus we find a general agreement that the '''metaphysical ''self'', [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]''', is the real Self and it is embodied in a biological or physical body of the composite '''Jiva (जीवः)'''. This core distinction of Jiva from a mere human body is reflected in the treatment methods adopted in Ayurveda unlike those in modern medicine where a person is limited to a physical self.<ref name=":14">Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 5 - 9)</ref><ref name=":08" />
The unity of the person, despite constantly changing mental states and bodily conditions, is a function of the presence/reflection of Atman (''consciousness'' as-such). Here a distinction needs to be made between ''consciousnesses'' as-such identified as [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Brahman_(%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D) Brahman], [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Atman_(%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D) Atman], or [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Purusha_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%83) Purusha], and awareness. ''Consciousness'' as-such is unchanging and ineffable. It is indeterminate and unqualified, and as such it takes no forms. In the context of cognitive activity, its role is no more than to reflect/illumine the form the mind takes in its interaction with the world through the sensory gateways. Awareness is the result of consciousness illuminating the forms the mind takes. The person whose mind acts through the bodily apparatus may be considered conditioned because of thought, passion, and action are biased and distorted by the conditions of the body. Only an unconditioned person can have the true reflections of consciousness as-such. The goal of the person is to reach such an unconditioned state.<ref name=":14" />
The unity of the person, despite constantly changing mental states and bodily conditions, is a function of the presence/reflection of Atman (''consciousness'' as-such). Here a distinction needs to be made between ''consciousnesses'' as-such identified as [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], or [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], and awareness. ''Consciousness'' as-such is unchanging and ineffable. It is indeterminate and unqualified, and as such it takes no forms. In the context of cognitive activity, its role is no more than to reflect/illumine the form the mind takes in its interaction with the world through the sensory gateways. Awareness is the result of consciousness illuminating the forms the mind takes. The person whose mind acts through the bodily apparatus may be considered conditioned because of thought, passion, and action are biased and distorted by the conditions of the body. Only an unconditioned person can have the true reflections of consciousness as-such. The goal of the person is to reach such an unconditioned state.<ref name=":14" />
===Psychological Self===
===Psychological Self===
Beyond the physical self exists the psychological self and further outside to it is the social self, and both these concepts are brimming with cultural constructions. For example, the varna system is an important part of Indian social self, which has relevance for the Indian population and the Indian Diaspora but little relevance for other cultures. The manas or mind, chitta, buddhi, ahankara etc., form the psychological constructs of the person and are critical in understanding the psyche of Indians.<ref name=":08" />
Beyond the physical self exists the psychological self and further outside to it is the social self, and both these concepts are brimming with cultural constructions. For example, the varna system is an important part of Indian social self, which has relevance for the Indian population and the Indian Diaspora but little relevance for other cultures. The manas or mind, chitta, buddhi, ahankara etc., form the psychological constructs of the person and are critical in understanding the psyche of Indians.<ref name=":08" />
According to Dr. Bhawuk<ref name=":08" />, Shrimad Bhagavadgita, explains the relationship between the physical body, sense organs, manas, buddhi, and Atman. Buddhi is the closest to Atman, but if it is outward focused, it guides manas to explore the world through the senses and the body enjoying such activities and their outcomes. However, when buddhi becomes inward focused towards Atman, manas becomes inward focused, detaching itself from the senses and body. They (body and senses) scan but do not desire to acquire anything from the environment. Manas remains in what is referred to as yadṛcchālābhasantuṣṭaḥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.22) or satisfied with whatever is offered by the environment without asking. The state of a Jnani is explained as follows.<blockquote>यदृच्छालाभसन्तुष्टो द्वन्द्वातीतो विमत्सरः । समः सिद्धावसिद्धौ च कृत्वापि न निबध्यते ॥ ४-२२॥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.22)</blockquote>Meaning: Content with what comes to him without effort, free from the pairs-of-opposites and envy, even-minded in success and failure, though acting he is not bound.
According to Dr. Bhawuk<ref name=":08" />, Shrimad Bhagavadgita, explains the relationship between the physical body, sense organs, manas, buddhi, and Atman. Buddhi is the closest to Atman, but if it is outward focused, it guides manas to explore the world through the senses and the body enjoying such activities and their outcomes. However, when buddhi becomes inward focused towards Atman, manas becomes inward focused, detaching itself from the senses and body. They (body and senses) scan but do not desire to acquire anything from the environment. Manas remains in what is referred to as yadṛcchālābhasantuṣṭaḥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.22) or satisfied with whatever is offered by the environment without asking. The state of a Jnani is explained as follows.<blockquote>यदृच्छालाभसन्तुष्टो द्वन्द्वातीतो विमत्सरः । समः सिद्धावसिद्धौ च कृत्वापि न निबध्यते ॥ ४-२२॥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.22)</blockquote>Meaning: Content with what comes to him without effort, free from the pairs-of-opposites and envy, even-minded in success and failure, though acting he is not bound.
A person must use buddhi for purification of the self, though it is subtle and does not seem to have any agency. Here the focus is on engaging the manas inwards with the buddhi, gradually eliminating outward attachments and withdrawing from the worldly activities. Apart from the focus, the gunas, [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Sattva%20(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) sattva], [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Rajas%20(%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%83) rajas] and [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Tamas%20(%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) tamas] also play a significant role in determining the decisions the buddhi takes. Ahamkara used in the sense of ego, as in the concept of self in the West and it is because of its value in understanding how we perform activities.<ref name=":08" />
A person must use buddhi for purification of the self, though it is subtle and does not seem to have any agency. Here the focus is on engaging the manas inwards with the buddhi, gradually eliminating outward attachments and withdrawing from the worldly activities. Apart from the focus, the gunas, [[Sattva (सत्त्वम्)|sattva]], [[Rajas (रजः)|rajas]] and [[Tamas (तमः)|tamas]] also play a significant role in determining the decisions the buddhi takes. Ahamkara used in the sense of ego, as in the concept of self in the West and it is because of its value in understanding how we perform activities.<ref name=":08" />
===Social Self===
===Social Self===
Social network shaped by intricate relationships and behavior patterns A few important parameters required for analysis and understanding of social and behavioral patterns used in modern research are summarized below.<ref name=":7">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, London: Springer. (Pages 10 - 15)</ref>
Social network is shaped by intricate relationships and behavior patterns. A few important parameters required for analysis and understanding of social and behavioral patterns used in modern research are summarized below.<ref name=":7">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, London: Springer. (Pages 10 - 15)</ref>
# '''Individualism''': In individualist cultures, people view themselves as having an '''independent''' '''concept of self'''. Individualists' do not include other people, i.e., the self is independent. People in the Western world (e.g., USA, Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand) have an independent concept of self, and they feel a more pronounced social distance between themselves and others, including the immediate family.
# '''Individualism''': In individualist cultures, people view themselves as having an '''independent''' '''concept of self'''. Individualists' do not include other people, i.e., the self is independent. People in the Western world (e.g., USA, Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand) have an independent concept of self, and they feel a more pronounced social distance between themselves and others, including the immediate family.
# '''Collectivism''': In these cultures, people view themselves as having an '''interdependent''' '''concept of self'''. Collectivists' include other people in their social sphere, namely, members of family, friends, and even people from workplace. People in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and so forth have an interdependent concept of self, and social distance between an individual and his or her parents, spouse, siblings, children, friends, neighbors, supervisor, subordinate, and so forth is small.<ref name=":7" /> In India, the collective perspective is socially oriented and is founded on the concept of [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Dharma%20(%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) Dharma]. It refers to the codes of conduct that governs the social and moral life and preserves the stability of the society.<ref name=":4" />
# '''Collectivism''': In these cultures, people view themselves as having an '''interdependent''' '''concept of self'''. Collectivists' include other people in their social sphere, namely, members of family, friends, and even people from workplace. People in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and so forth have an interdependent concept of self, and social distance between an individual and his or her parents, spouse, siblings, children, friends, neighbors, supervisor, subordinate, and so forth is small.<ref name=":7" /> In India, the collective perspective is socially oriented and is founded on the concept of [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Dharma%20(%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) Dharma]. It refers to the codes of conduct that governs the social and moral life and preserves the stability of the society.<ref name=":4">Dagar, C and Pandey, A. (2020) ''Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda''. Switzerland: Springer Nature</ref>
# '''Independent''' '''concept of self:''' For an individualistic person, the relationship between self and other people, or elements of nature is sharply and rigidly defined. He takes more control over elements of nature or situations around himself or herself. There is less emotional attachment to others and more responsibility for his or her behaviors.<ref name=":7" />
# '''Independent''' '''concept of self:''' For an individualistic person, the relationship between self and other people, or elements of nature is sharply and rigidly defined. He takes more control over elements of nature or situations around himself or herself. There is less emotional attachment to others and more responsibility for his or her behaviors.<ref name=":7" />
# '''Interdependent''' '''concept of self:''' An interdependent self has less rigid and amorphous boundary between self and other people. There is a holistic view of the world, where self is thought to be of the same substance as other things in nature. In this view, the elements of nature and self cannot be separated from each other. The relationship between self and other people or elements of nature is much closer, thereby they share interdependence and tighter emotional bonding with members of extended family and friends. A significant point that expresses cultural value of the extended family is the presence of single words to address them. Most Indian languages have single words not only for the members of the nucleus family i.e., father, mother, brother and sister, but also for members of extended family, such as paternal grandparents (dada and dadi), maternal grandparents (nana and nani) and so on.<ref name=":7" />
# '''Interdependent''' '''concept of self:''' An interdependent self has less rigid and amorphous boundary between self and other people. There is a holistic view of the world, where self is thought to be of the same substance as other things in nature. In this view, the elements of nature and self cannot be separated from each other. The relationship between self and other people or elements of nature is much closer, thereby they share interdependence and tighter emotional bonding with members of extended family and friends. A significant point that expresses cultural value of the extended family is the presence of single words to address them. Most Indian languages have single words not only for the members of the nucleus family i.e., father, mother, brother and sister, but also for members of extended family, such as paternal grandparents (dada and dadi), maternal grandparents (nana and nani) and so on.<ref name=":7" />
*the psychophysical perspectives of the mind to learn its functionality, factors influencing, controlling, and enhancing human potential and wellbeing.
*the psychophysical perspectives of the mind to learn its functionality, factors influencing, controlling, and enhancing human potential and wellbeing.
*the psycho-spiritual perspectives derived from the mind-consciousness association to understand and realize about the non-physical resources of human functioning available due to the association of the mind with ''consciousness'' as-such.
*the psycho-spiritual perspectives derived from the mind-consciousness association to understand and realize about the non-physical resources of human functioning available due to the association of the mind with ''consciousness'' as-such.
Thus a person can be studied at various levels; two of which are most highly pertinent to psychology - the psychophysical and psycho-spiritual levels. The various concepts of self, are well grounded in different Indian philosophical and vedantic texts. The metaphysical self is most commonly visualized as [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Atman_(%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D) Atman], which is situated in a living being as a result of past [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Karma_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE) karma]. The physical self can further be classified as [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Sharira_Traya_(%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) sharira-traya] (the three bodies - sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) or [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Panchakosha_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%83) panchakoshas] (constituting - annamaya, pranamaya, manomaya, vijnanamaya and anandamaya koshas). While social self is manifested by the various beings in different ways at different proportions, human beings are believed to be the only ones who can pursue [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Moksha_(%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%83) moksha] (or liberation) [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Purushartha_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5:) purushartha], enlightenment, jnana (or knowledge), or self-realization.
Thus a person can be studied at various levels; two of which are most highly pertinent to psychology - the psychophysical and psycho-spiritual levels. The various concepts of self, are well grounded in different Indian philosophical and vedantic texts. The metaphysical self is most commonly visualized as [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], which is situated in a living being as a result of past [[Karma (कर्म)|karma]]. The physical self can further be classified as [[Sharira Traya (शरीरत्रयम्)|sharira-traya]] (the three bodies - sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) or [[Panchakosha (पञ्चकोषाः)|panchakoshas]] (constituting - annamaya, pranamaya, manomaya, vijnanamaya and anandamaya koshas). While social self is manifested by the various beings in different ways at different proportions, human beings are believed to be the only ones who can pursue [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]] (or liberation) [[Purushartha (पुरुषार्थ:)|purushartha]], enlightenment, jnana (or knowledge), or self-realization.
==Panchakosha model of self==
Based on the [[Panchakosha (पञ्चकोषाः)|Panchakoshas]] presented in the Taittriya Upanishad the following classification gives rise to a model of self having the following elements.<ref name=":08" />
Based on the [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Panchakosha%20(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%83) Panchakoshas] presented in the Taittriya Upanishad the following classification gives rise to a model of self having the following elements.<ref name=":08" />
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Indian Concept of Self and Relation to Panchakoshas<ref name=":08" />
|+Indian Concept of Self and Relation to Panchakoshas<ref name=":08" />
!Elements
!Elements
!Functions
!Functions
|-
|-
|Metaphysical Self (the I-ness) - Subtlest
|Metaphysical Self (the I-ness) - Subtlest
|Jivatma (Atman Embodied)
|Jivatma (Atman Embodied)
|Kartrtva (doer) and Bhoktrtva (enjoyer)
|Kartrtva (doer) and Bhoktrtva (enjoyer)
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" |Psychological Self (Mental and Cognitive faculty) Subtle
| rowspan="2" |Psychological Self (Mental and Cognitive faculty) Subtle
|Buddhi (the discriminative decision making faculty)
|Buddhi (the discriminative decision making faculty)
|''vijñāna''—understanding, knowing, direct cognition, wisdom, intuition and creativity.
|''vijñāna''—understanding, knowing, direct cognition, wisdom, intuition and creativity.
|-
|-
|Manomaya Kosha
|Manomaya Kosha
|Physiological functions of the body
|Physiological functions of the body
|Functional aspects of the body such as breathing, excretion, digestion etc.
|Functional aspects of the body such as breathing, excretion, digestion etc.
|-
|-
|Annamaya Kosha
|Annamaya Kosha
|Human body and its parts such as, tissues, bones, skin, organs etc.
|Human body and its parts such as, tissues, bones, skin, organs etc.
|}
|}
==References==
==References==
<references />
<references />
[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Vedanta]]