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→2. Organization
== Definition of Perception ==
== Definition of Perception ==
An awareness about the external stimuli gathered by the sense-organs is the result of a higher mental process called 'perception'. It helps us interpret the world around us and in making an appropriate decision in simple and complex situations and stimuli. Perception is a process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the sensory information based on previous experiences, other's experiences, needs or expectations.
An awareness about the external stimuli gathered by the sense-organs is the result of a higher mental process called 'perception'. An immediate interpretation of a sense impression is called a perception. It helps us interpret the world around us and in making an appropriate decision in simple and complex situations and stimuli. Perception is a process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the sensory information based on previous experiences, other's experiences, needs or expectations.
Responding to a stimulus presented to one sense by perceiving a fact which could only be directly presented to another sense is exemplified also by such common expressions as that the stone ‘looks heavy,’ or that the bell 'sounds cracked.’ All this goes to show that we read meaning into the things that strike our sense organs. In other words, we perceive those things. As Woodworth states it: “We see things not as they are but as we are.”<ref name=":3">Morgan, John Jacob Brooke, and Adam Raymond Gilliland. ''An introduction to psychology''. Macmillan, 1927. (Page 145-181)</ref>
== Process of Perception ==
== Process of Perception ==
Broadly, the process of perception involves three steps, when a stimulus is encountered.
As a child sensations are not completely processed to ascribe meanings except those such as necessities say hunger. For example in an adult, a noise may arouse questions of what it may be until satisfactory answer is obtained, a meaning or significance has to be given. However, the same noise would probably startle a baby, but the sound would have no significance for him. We say the child will learn the meaning of such sound stimuli later on. This shows that a large part of human development is learning to understand the significance of the things we experience. It is only as we learn to interpret things, to read meaning into them, that we grow mentally.<ref name=":3" /> Broadly, the process of perception involves three steps, when a stimulus is encountered.
=== 1. Selection ===
=== 1. Selection ===
Selection is the first stage of perception. At a given time, due to various factors, the human brain consciously or unconsciously, processes only some stimuli ignoring the others. For example, when engaged in deep conversation we tune out of many sounds in the background and do not register them. The selected stimulus becomes the "attended stimulus."<ref name=":1" />
Selection is the first stage of perception. At a given time, due to various factors, the human brain consciously or unconsciously, processes only some stimuli ignoring the others. For example, when engaged in deep conversation we tune out of many sounds in the background and do not register them. The selected stimulus becomes the "attended stimulus."<ref name=":1" />
Subsequent to selecting the stimulus the interpretation depends on how the information is organized for processing. Selection is influenced by some factors like attention.
Subsequent to selecting the stimulus the interpretation depends on how the information is organized for processing. Selection is influenced by some factors like attention, motivation etc.
=== 2. Organization ===
=== 2. Organization ===
It is the second stage of perception. It refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. In this stage, stimuli are arranged mentally in a meaningful pattern, thus, organizing the information received. This process occurs unconsciously explained by certain principles such as those of Gestalt. Perception involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing refers to the fact that perceptions are built from sensory input. On the other hand, how we interpret those sensations is influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our thoughts. This is called top-down processing.<ref name=":0" />
It is the second stage of perception. It refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. In this stage, stimuli are arranged mentally in a meaningful pattern, thus, organizing the information received. This process occurs unconsciously explained by certain principles such as those of Gestalt. Perception involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing refers to the fact that perceptions are built from sensory input. On the other hand, how we interpret those sensations is influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our thoughts. This is called top-down processing.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
{| class="wikitable"
!Bottom-Up Processing
!Top-down Processing
|-
|Process of perception is direct
|Process of perception is indirect
|-
|Perception is a data driven process i.e., stimuli carries sufficient information to be interpreted meaningfully not relying on person's experiences.
|Perception is an experience driven process i.e., stimuli does not carry sufficient information to be interpreted meaningfully thus requiring to rely on person's experiences.
|-
|J J Gibson was one of the strongest advocate of this view.
|Richard Gregory was the strongest advocate of this view.
|}
=== 3. Interpretation ===
=== 3. Interpretation ===
Attention plays a significant role in determining what is sensed versus what is perceived. Imagine a party full of music, chatter, and laughter. When one is absorbed in an interesting conversation with a friend, and he/she gets tuned out all the background chatter or conversations which can be termed as noise. On interruption the person would probably be unable to answer what song was just played. Failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention is called inattentional blindness.<ref name=":0" />
Attention plays a significant role in determining what is sensed versus what is perceived. Imagine a party full of music, chatter, and laughter. When one is absorbed in an interesting conversation with a friend, and he/she gets tuned out all the background chatter or conversations which can be termed as noise. On interruption the person would probably be unable to answer what song was just played. Failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention is called inattentional blindness.<ref name=":0" />
Selective Attention : One of the most important functions of attention is selectivity. The selected stimulus of interest is the one on which total attention is focused, while ignoring other relevant stimuli.
'''Selective Attention''': One of the most important functions of attention is selectivity. The selected stimulus of interest is the one on which total attention is focused, while ignoring other relevant stimuli.<ref name=":1" />
Sustained Attention: Some activities involve prolonged attention such as computer games, and gazing at the radar screen. It is the ability to attend a stimulus for a longer period of time without being distracted.
'''Sustained Attention''': Some activities involve prolonged attention such as a computer game, or gazing at the radar screen. It is the ability to attend a stimulus for a longer period of time without being distracted.<ref name=":1" />
=== Motivation ===
=== Motivation ===
Motivation can also affect perception. Have you ever been expecting a really important phone call and, while taking a shower, you think you hear the phone ringing, only to discover that it is not so. If so, then you have experienced how motivation to detect a meaningful stimulus can shift our ability to discriminate between a true sensory stimulus and background noise.<ref name=":0" />
Motivation can also affect perception. For example, while expecting a really important phone call and, taking a shower, a one thinks that one can hear the phone ringing, only to discover that it is not so. This is how a motivation or expectation to detect a meaningful stimulus can influence our perception. It can shift our ability to discriminate between a true sensory stimulus and background noise.<ref name=":0" /> It is common experience that when we feel hungry, our attention tends to catch the smell of food easily than when we are not hungry. Hunger is a motivation influencing our perception.<ref name=":1" />
=== Cultural influence ===
=== Cultural influence ===
== Gestalt Principles of Perception ==
== Gestalt Principles of Perception ==
In the early 20th century, three German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka proposed new principles for explaining perception called as Gestalt principle. According to these psychologists, the process of perception does not involve perceiving an array of stimuli as an object but it involves our tendency to seek a form or pattern in it. The literal meaning of the word Gestalt is form or configuration. The basic premise of Gestalt psychology is that ‘whole is different from the sum of its part’. Based on this basic premise, Gestalt psychologists proposed a number of principles or laws to explain the process of perceptual organisation i.e., how we perceive smaller units of stimuli as a whole, having a particular pattern.<ref name=":1" />
=== Figure-ground Relationship ===
According to this Gestalt principle, we tend to segment our visual world into figure and ground. Figure is the object or person that is the focus of the visual field, while ground is the background.
The factors which determine perceptual grouping are:-
(a) Proximity: All other factors being equal, stimuli that are near one another tend to be grouped together. For example, if four stand near one another and a fifth 10 feet away, the adjacent four will be seen as a group and the distant fifth as an outsider. Events that are close in time and space are also perceived together.
(b) Similarity: Stimuli that are similar in size, shape or color tend to be grouped together.
(c) Continuity: Perception tends toward simplicity and continuity. Even if there are dots in a circular fashion, the person will see them as a complete circle.
(d) Closure: It is the tendency to complete a figure that is incomplete but has a consistent overall form. (e) Common region: Stimuli that are found within a common area tend to be seen as a group.
== Illusions ==
Under certain circumstances, there is a tendency to misinterpret certain sensory experiences which we call as an illusion.<ref name=":3" />
# Vertical distances are perceived as greater than mathematically equal horizontal distances. A vertical line looks longer than the horizontal line upon which it is standing. A high hat will look higher than it really is on account of this illusion.
# Filled or divided space appears greater than empty or undivided space.
# Contrast affects our interpretation of sensations. For example, vinegar tastes very sour after eating sugar, bliss is greater if we have been despondent, a disappointment is keener if we have been keyed to a high pitch of expectancy. A famous example is the Muller-Lyer illusion of two arrows having lines facing outwards and inwards but the distance between the arrow points is the same.
# The apparent direction of a line is influenced by the presence of other lines.
# Illusions of area
# Illusions of perspective
== Extra Sensory Perception ==
== Extra Sensory Perception ==